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Julio-Diciembre 2022

Vol. 12 No. 2

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Interacción y Perspectiva Dep. Legal pp 201002Z43506

Revista de Trabajo Social ISSN 2244-808X

Julio-diciembre

ARTÍCULO DE INVESTIGACIÓN

Presentación de un modelo práctico para la prevención de la victimización

sexual de niños y adolescentes en Irán: síntesis de investigación

DOI:10.5281/zenodo.7114623

Sahand Mahdavi Zargar *, Shahla Moazami ** y Shadi Azimzadeh**

Resumen

Las tasas de abuso infantil suelen ser más bajas que en el mundo. Los estudios en Irán

muestran que el 10% ha sido violado al menos una vez en su vida. La mayoría de las

violaciones no se denuncian por varias razones, y solo 344 de cada 1000 violaciones se

denuncian a la policía. En otras palabras, de tres casos, dos permanecen ocultos. En

2013, 561 personas fueron encarceladas en Irán por delitos relacionados con la violencia

sexual infantil, situación que aumentó a 2683 en 2021. Las sobrevivientes de violación,

tienen menos probabilidades de buscar tratamiento postraumático, solo el 26% busca

atención médica, por lo que el aumento de delitos sexuales en Irán muestra la necesidad

de mayores esfuerzos para estudiar estrategias de prevención. Se trata de una

investigación cuyo propósito fue presentar un modelo práctico para la prevención del

abuso sexual en niños y adolescentes en Irán. Los datos fueron recolectados a través de

un cuestionario elaborado por el investigador en secciones cuantitativas y cualitativas.

Las pruebas de chi-cuadrado y la de Fisher permitieron analizar los datos del cuestionario

utilizando el software estadístico SPSS (versión 18). Los resultados mostraron que ocho

factores sociales, económicos, de género, familiares, demográficos, mediáticos,

psicológicos y biológicos pueden jugar un papel en la victimización sexual de niños y

adolescentes.

Palabras clave: modelo de prevención, victimización sexual, síntesis de investigación,

niñez, adolescencia.

Abstract

Presenting a Practical Model for the Prevention of Sexual Victimization of

Children and Adolescents in Iran: Research Synthesis

Child abuse rates are often lower than in the real world while social problems are hidden.

Studies in Iran show that 10% of children have been raped at least once in their life.

Most rapes are not reported to the police for various reasons, with only 344 out of 1,000

rapes being reported to the police. In other words, out of three cases, two remain hidden.

In 2013, 561 people were imprisoned in Iran for crimes related to child sexual violence,

which will increase to 2683 in 2021. Rape survivors, on the other hand, are less likely to

seek post-traumatic treatment, with only 26% of victims. Seek medical attention, for

which the increase in sexual crimes in Iran shows the need for greater efforts to study

prevention strategies and postpone and reduce these crimes. This research is applied in

terms of purpose and descriptive survey in terms of execution method. The purpose of

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sexual de niños y adolescentes en Irán

180

this study is to present a practical model for the prevention of sexual abuse of children

and adolescents in Iran. For this, the data was collected through a combination of

research and a questionnaire prepared by the researcher in quantitative and qualitative

sections, respectively. The chi-square test and Fisher's exact test were used to analyze

the questionnaire data using the statistical software SPSS (version 18). The results of a

combination of investigations showed that eight factors like social, economic, gender,

family, demographic, media, psychological and biological can play a role in the sexual

victimization of children and adolescents.

Keywords: prevention model, sexual victimization, research synthesis, children,

adolescents.

Recibido: 08/08/2022 Aceptado: 12/09/2022

*PhD Student, Department of Law, Ardabil Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ardabil, Iran. Email:

sahandmahdavi68@chmail.ir

**Associate Professor, Department of Law, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran. E-mail: smoazami@ut.ac.ir

***Assistant Professor, Department of Law, South Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. E-

mail: Sh_azimzadeh@azad.ac.ir

1.- Introduction

The rising trend in sexual offences in Iran calls for much more efforts to reflect on

prevention strategies, and consequently moderate such crimes because of their

undesirable consequences, such as loss of a sense of security, weak family structure,

widespread lawlessness in the society, and thus hurting the feelings in the public

(Towhidi & Fazli, 2014: 72). The starting point of criminology is to identify the effective

factors in crime incidence in order for providing prevention strategies, and then

developing correctional treatment, accordingly (Mirkhalili, 2009: 35).

Therefore, it is of utmost importance to find the factors affecting the occurrence of such

crimes and take action to eradicate them. The increasing prevalence rate of sexual

deviations in recent years also indicates the uselessness of the legislative response to

sexual offenses and misconduct. In spite of the uncontrollable growth of sexual crimes

in the society, they have not still received much attention from experts in various fields

for unknown reasons (Towhidi & Fazli, 2014: 72). The strategies that have been adopted

so far to deal with sexual victimization have been merely subjective, cross-sectional,

superficial, short-term, and without any real and comprehensive pathology (Paknahad,

2013: 30).

As children and adolescents are psychologically and socially more sensitive, and are

even much more vulnerable than other age groups, and considering that the progress

and development in any society largely depends on public health, the research on the

phenomenon of sexual victimization to detect the causes of crimes and offences is very

important because it contributes to detecting the shortcomings and taking action to solve

these problems. In this way, the challenges facing the society, particularly the future

generations as the most sensitive but flexible groups can be resolved, and some

strategies can be implemented to advance the scientific and cultural goals in the society

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(Torabi & Rezazadeh Moghaddam, 2017). Accordingly, the present study was to fulfill

Paragraph 5 of Article 156 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, i.e.,

"Appropriate action needs to be taken to prevent crime and reform criminals", and use

a method applicable to these individuals. In this regard, the practical model for the

prevention of sexual victimization of children and adolescents in Iran was presented.

2. Theoretical Foundation

Prevention: Definition and Concept

The term prevention literally means "a preventive action, repulsion, obstruction, and

forbidding maintenance and wanting" (Dehkhoda, 1998: 5991). In English, it refers to

the action of stopping something from happening or arising (Rajabipour, 2008: 70). With

reference to the concept of prevention, there are two general orientations: broad and

narrow or limited. According to the broad concept, "any action taken against a crime to

reduce is considered prevention". In this regard, various criminal and non-criminal

measures, both before and after crime incidence, are counted as prevention (Rajabipour,

2008: 70). "Prevention in its narrow and limited perception consists of measures and

actions that are non-criminal in nature and are often implemented before the occurrence

of a criminal phenomenon in order to prevent it from becoming actual" (Haji Dehabadi,

XXX).

From a scientific perspective, prevention represents a logical-empirical concept that

is symmetrically derived from some reasons and experiences. In criminology, prevention

takes place outside the scope of the penal system, and denotes any action that seeks to

prevent crime incidence; in other words, any measures taken to minimize delinquency

can be the subject of preventive criminology. In this sense, preventive responses to a

criminal phenomenon are the measures characterized by an action and a non-coercive

nature to sterilize the society, resolve criminal crises, or disrupt previous situations

(Najafi Abrandabadi, 2009). The prevention of sexual victimization of children and

adolescents accordingly refers to the measures and actions taken before such individuals

are abused.

Sexual Victimization Prevention Classification

In the related literature, criminal policy in relation to the prevention of sexual

victimization is classified into three groups: action-oriented, situational, and reactive

(Bagheri, 2018):

a) Preventive (action-oriented) criminal policy against sexual victimization: This

type of prevention, also called non-criminal prevention, is a set of non-

criminal measures and actions that seek to prevent a crime before its

occurrence by intervening in the process of crime actualization and a pre-

criminal situation. This type of prevention is also divided into two categories:

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sexual de niños y adolescentes en Irán

182

social and situational. The social prevention itself is grouped into two types:

community- and growth-oriented. The community-oriented prevention

accordingly is to affect the social context and the public environment by taking

appropriate actions and measures to eliminate or reduce criminals. The

growth-oriented prevention also aims to prevent the establishment and

continuation of criminal behaviors in individuals by identifying risk factors and

strengthening supportive ones as well as implementing early interventions

(Taheri, 2009: 396). In fact, the community-oriented prevention strives for

eliminating criminal settings.

b) Situational preventive measures against sexual victimization: This type of

prevention includes non-criminal measures and actions that are to eliminate

or minimize the opportunities for a crime and make the pre-criminal situation

inappropriate by increasing the risks of identification and the possibility of

arrest. The offender is thus prevented to commit a crime. This type of

prevention seeks to disrupt the process of transition from a criminal thought

to act, using non-criminal methods, viz. elevating the costs of committing a

crime and diminishing the resulting profits. It also seeks to prevent crime

permanently by making changes and reforms in the individuals and the

society, and even making the citizens aware to comply with social rules

through education, encouragement, and punishment. In fact, in the

situational prevention, there is no look at the future, but disturbing the

offender's plans at the moment of committing a crime. Actually, offenders see

some obstacles that must be removed if they want to commit a crime.

c) Counter-criminal (reactive) preventive policy against sexual victimization:

This type of prevention, as a retrieval strategy, prevents people after the

crime occurrence by some measures and actions in the criminal justice system

to reduce the crime incidence rate by individual and collective intimidation

and learning from the first crime and its reoccurrence. This type of prevention

is based on the impact it has on the individual and society, which in turn is

divided into two types: general and specific (Bagheri, 2018).

3. Methodology

This applied cross-sectional study with an exploratory objective was a descriptive

survey, using a mixed methods (qualitative-quantitative) research design. In this study,

the data collection method was fulfilled in three phases. In the first phase, library studies,

including the study of domestic and foreign books and publications and searching the

databases (the Internet) were exploited in order to design the model. Thus, the factors

affecting sexual victimization were identified according to the theoretical and practical

foundations of the research. In the next phase, the criteria retrieved were synthesized

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using the Roberts' six-step research synthesis model, the duplicate components were

removed, and finally the desired criteria were selected (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Roberts' six-step research synthesis model

Identify the needs, do the primary searches, and elucidate

the needs

Conduct research to retrieve the studies

Select, refine, and organize the studies

Provide the conceptual framework and match it with the

data resulting from the analyses

Process, synthesize, and interpret the data to reach tangible

outcomes

Present the results

Source: Authors development

The databases selected in this study included Science Direct, Google Scholar,

Noormags, the Scientific Information Database (SID), Magiran, and the Comprehensive

Portal of Human Sciences. As well, the keywords used for the search purposes were

sexual victimization, sexual delinquency, children, adolescents, and effective factors. In

total, 173 articles, dissertations, and books were evaluated with reference to the

research criteria. Upon reviewing the sources, 36 Persian articles (published from 1993

to 2018) and 62 English cases (published from 1983 to 2020), were finally reviewed and

synthesized (Table 1). In the third phase, a questionnaire was designed in accordance

with the synthesized criteria and its integration with the expert opinions.

The questionnaire consisted of 90 closed-ended items to examine the effective

factors in eight areas of social, economic, gender-related, family-related, demographic,

media-related, psychological, and biological, whose validity was determined and

confirmed by 15 experts involved in the fields of criminal law and criminology (n=8),

sociology (n=4), and psychology (n=3), using the content validity index (CVR). In

addition, the reliability of the questionnaire was estimated via Cronbach's alpha

coefficient at 82%.

In the present study, a total number of 22 sex victims residing in the Juvenile

Correctional Facility, Ardabil, Iran, and 43 sex offenders in prisons located in Ardabil,

Iran, whose convictions had been finalized, were examined with the permission of the

relevant authorities. The data collected from the sex victims and offenders were then

Mahdavi, Moazami y Azimzadeh / Presentación de un modelo práctico para la prevención de la victimización

sexual de niños y adolescentes en Irán

184

analyzed, using descriptive (i.e., percentage and frequency) and inferential (viz. Chi-

square test and Fisher's exact test) statistics in the SPSS Statistics software (ver. 18).

4. Results

The study findings were presented in two parts. First, the Roberts' six-step research

synthesis model was exploited to determine the factors affecting the sexual victimization

of children and adolescents, as illustrated in Table 1.

The synthesis results of previous research after processing, synthesis, and

interpretation accordingly revealed that sex offender's place of living, migration from

rural to urban areas, drug addiction, parental divorce, as well as parental alcohol abuse

and smoking were among the factors affecting the sexual victimization of children and

adolescents, named as the social factors. In addition, sex offender's occupation, parental

occupation, type of housing, family income, gift/money offers to sex victims, and

educational facilities at school were labelled as the economic factors.

Moreover, preferring to dress as the opposite sex, tendency to communicate with the

opposite sex, sexual desire, enjoying sex, watching pornography, seeing the intimacy

and sex of others, witnessing the intimacy and sex of parents, and companionship with

sexually victimized friends, were called the gender-related factors. As well, the causes

of parental death, family conflicts and quarrels, being alone at home, having one's own

room, and a sense of fear at home, were named the family-related factors.

In this line, sex victim's age, sex offender's age, as well as sex victim's gender, level

of education, family size, age gap with friends, time of sexual victimization, age gap with

sex offender, and sex offender's marital status were called the demographic factors. The

use of satellite, having one's own personal mobile phone, use of mass media such as

Telegram, WhatsApp, Instagram, etc. by sex victims were also processed, synthesized,

and interpreted as the media-related factors.

Besides, sex victim's corporal punishment, swearing and insulting sex victims in the

family, as well as their family breakdown, conflicts with siblings, strict parents, strict

teachers, along with being mocked by family and receiving abusive behaviors by others,

in addition to sex offender's depression, anger, high self-esteem, fear, isolation, lack of

self-control, feeling of guilt or worthlessness or inferiority, and obsessive-compulsive

disorder were named as the psychological factors.

Similarly, sex victim's weight, skin complexion, hair color, eye color, and physical

condition as well as having many siblings and birth rank were called the biological

factors.

Summarizing the results, the model for the prevention of sexual victimization of

children and adolescents was presented, comprised of eight factors: social, economic,

gender-related, family-related, demographic, media-related, psychological, and

biological.

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Table 1

The synthesis of the factors affecting the sexual victimization of children

and adolescents in the selected studies

Selection, refinement,

and organization of studies

Conceptual

framework

and matching

it with the

data

resulting

from the

analyses

Processing,

synthesis,

and

interpretation

to reach

tangible

outcomes

Kazemipour (1998), Bakhshipour (1998), Kashefi Ismailzadeh (2000),

Mahdikhani (2001), Smallbone et al. (2006), Bottoms et al. (2017),

Savioja (2019)

Place of living

Social factors

Kaur (2004), Péron & Grémillet (2013), De Schrijver et al. (2018), Delia

Deckard (2020)

Migration from

rural to urban

areas

Negahi Mokhlesabadi (2002), Madani Ghahfarokhi (2004), Naghavi &

Fatehizadeh (2008), Nobles et al. (2012), Smallbone et al. (2013),

Thomas (2015), Kirby (2015), Levenson et al. (2017), Letourneau et al.

(2017)

Drug addiction

Motamedi & Mostofifar (2009), Bagheri (2009), MacFarlane (1986), Price

& Kunz (2003), DeKeseredy (2006)

Parental

divorce

Najafi Abrandabadi & Hashembeigi (2011), Mohseni (2013), La Fond

(2005), Wortley & Smallbone (2006), Terry & Ackerman (2008), Bonnar-

Kidd (2010), Nobles et al. (2012), Smallbone et al. (2013), Thomas

(2015), Kirby (2015), Levenson et al. (2017), Letourneau et al. (2017),

Stewart et al. (2019)

Parental

alcohol abuse

De Von Figueroa-Moseley et al. (2004), Kim et al. (2006), Arslan et al.

(2016)

Parental

smoking

Bakhshalian (1998), Mohammadkhani (2001), Madani Ghahfarokhi

(2004), Smallbone et al. (2013), Levenson et al. (2017), Letourneau et

al. (2017), Stewart et al. (2019)

Parental

occupation

Economic

factors

Madani Ghahfarokhi (2004), Smallbone et al. (2013), Levenson et al.

(2017), Letourneau et al. (2017), Stewart et al. (2019)

Sex offender's

Occupation

Mahdikhani (2001), Bakhshipour (2009), Levenson et al. (2007),

Smallbone et al. (2013), Kirby (2015)

Type of

housing

Bakhshipour (1998), Hatefi (1999), Kashefi Ismailzadeh (2000),

Mohammadkhani (2001), Madani Ghahfarokhi (2004), Mohseni (2013),

Hosseini & Safari (2015), Laws (1989), La Fond (2005), Bonnar-Kidd

(2010), Smallbone et al. (2013), Kirby (2015), Levenson et al. (2017),

Letourneau et al. (2017), Stewart et al. (2019)

Family income

Mohseni (2013), Levenson et al. (2017), Thompson (2020)

Gift/money

offers to sex

victims

Atouf (2007), Davidson-Arad (2009)

Educational

facilities at

school

Leila (2007), Clark (1996), Boesky (2002), McCuish & Lussier (2017)

Preferring to

dress as the

opposite sex

Boesky (2002), Myers (2012), McCuish (2017)

Tendency to

communicate

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sexual de niños y adolescentes en Irán

186

with the

opposite sex

Gender-related

factors

Leila (2007), Clark (1996), Zgourides (1997), Myers (2012), McCuish

(2017)

Sexual desire

Boesky (2002), Myers (2012), McCuish (2017)

Enjoying sex

Zgourides (1997), Boesky (2002), Myers (2012), McCuish (2017)

Seeing

pornography

Boesky (2002), Myers (2012), McCuish (2017)

Seeing the

intimacy and

sex of others

Leila (2007), Zgourides (1997), Boesky (2002), Myers (2012), McCuish

(2017)

Witnessing the

intimacy and

sex of parents

Clark (1996), Zgourides (1997), Boesky (2002), Myers (2012), McCuish

(2017)

Companionship

with sexually

victimized

friends

Madani Ghahfarokhi (2004)

Parental death

Family-related

factors

Namdari (1998), Madani Ghahfarokhi (2004), Kazemipour (1998), Velen

(1996)

Family conflicts

and quarrels

Madani Ghahfarokhi (2004), Bakhtiari & Hosseini (2004), Bagheri (2009)

Being alone at

home

Madani Ghahfarokhi (2004), Bakhtiari & Hosseini (2004)

Having one's

own room

Leila (2007), Bagheri (2009), Brett (2009), Shiravi (2010), Stuewig &

McCloskey (2005), Smallbone et al. (2006), Curcio et al. (2013),

Woodward et al. (2017), Savioja (2019)

A sense of fear

at home

Asadollahi Haji Kord (2001), Maleki (2005), Pournaji (2008), Motamedi

& Mostofifar (2009), Terry and Ackerman (2008), Nobles et al. (2012),

Kirby (2015), Levenson et al. (2017), Letourneau et al. (2017), Stewart

et al. (2019)

Sex victim's

age

Demographic

factors

Motamedi & Mostofifar (2009), Terry and Ackerman (2008), Levenson et

al. (2017), Stewart et al. (2019)

Sex offender's

age

Hosseini & Safari (2015)

Sex victim's

gender

Najafi Tavana (2005), Iman et al. (2011), Terry & Ackerman (2008),

Finkelhor (2009), Bonner-Kidd (2010), Nobles et al. (2012), Smallbone

et al. (2013), Thomas (2015), Kirby (2015), Levenson et al. (2017),

Letourneau et al. (2017), Stewart et al. (2019)

Level of

education

Bischof et al. (1995), Baker et al. (2003)

Sex victim's

family size

Kashefi Ismailzadeh (2000), Asadollahi Haji Kord (2001), Raijian Asli

(2002)

Age gap with

friends

Mohseni (2013), Terry & Ackerman (2008), Finkelhor (2009), Bonner-

Kidd (2010), Levenson et al. (2017), Letourneau et al. (2017, 2018)

Time of sexual

victimization

Levenson et al. (2017), Letourneau et al. (2017, 2018)

Age gap

between sex

victim and sex

offender

Terry & Ackerman (2008), Finkelhor (2009), Bonner-Kidd (2010), Nobles

et al. (2012), Thomas (2015), Kirby (2015), Letourneau et al. (2017)

Sex offender's

marital status

Sadeghi Fasaei & Rajab Larijani (2010), Towhidi & Fazli (2014), Bagheri

(2015), Letourneau et al. (2018)

Use of satellite

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Peters & Bullman (1996), Choi et al. (2017)

Having one's

own personal

mobile phone

Media-related

factors

Horowitz (2007), Kadiri & Muhammed (2010), Wijkman (2014), Wykes

(2017)

Use of mass

media such as

Telegram,

WhatsApp,

Instagram, etc.

Brett (2009), Green et al. (2002), Shannon (2009), Topçuoğlu et al.

(2014), Stewart et al. (2019), Amran & Basri (2020)

Sex victim's

corporal

punishment

Psychological

factors

Bischof et al. (1995), Caputo et al.(1999), Siria et al. (2020)

Swearing and

insulting sex

victims in the

family

Danesh (1991), Namdari (1998), Hatefi (1999), Mohammadkhani

(2001), Catherine (2003), Madani Ghahfarokhi (2004), Bakhtiari &

Hosseini (2004), Atouf (2007), Fakhraei (2008), Naghavi & Fatehizadeh

(2008), Motamedi & Mostofifar (2009), Mullen (1996)

Family

breakdown

Mullen (1996), Amran et al. (2020)

Conflicts with

siblings

Ryan et al. (2011), Stewart et al. (2019), Amran & Basri (2020)

Strict parents

Najafi Tavana (2005), Atouf (2007), Leila (2007), Abed Khorasani (2010)

Strict teachers

Curcio et al. (2013), Woodward et al. (2017), Savioja (2019)

Being mocked

by family

Rutter & Giller (1983), Goldstein (1991), Stuewig & McCloskey (2005),

Woodward et al. (2017)

Receiving

abusive

behaviors by

others

Rutter & Giller (1983), Goldstein (1991), Stuewig & McCloskey (2005),

Smallbone et al. (2006), Curcio et al. (2013), Woodward et al. (2017),

Savioja (2019)

Sex offender's

depression

Rutter & Giller (1983), Stuewig & McCloskey (2005), Smallbone et al.

(2006), Curcio et al. (2013), Woodward et al. (2017), Savioja (2019)

Sex offender's

anger

Curcio et al. (2013), Woodward et al. (2017), Savioja (2019)

Sex offender's

high self-

esteem

Rutter & Giller (1983), Goldstein (1991), Stuewig & McCloskey (2005),

Smallbone et al. (2006), Curcio et al. (2013)

Sex offender's

fear

Stuewig & McCloskey (2005), Curcio et al. (2013), Woodward et al.

(2017), Savioja (2019)

Sex offender's

isolation

Blaske et al. (1989), Haywood et al. (1996), Firestone et al. (1998),

Fisher et al. (1999), McMunn et al. (2019)

Sex offender's

lack of self-

control

Firestone et al. (1998), Fisher et al. (1999)

Sex offender's

feeling of guilt

worthlessness

or inferiority

Goldstein (1991), Stuewig & McCloskey (2005), Smallbone et al. (2006),

Savioja (2019)

Sex offender's

obsessive-

compulsive

disorder

Mahdavi, Moazami y Azimzadeh / Presentación de un modelo práctico para la prevención de la victimización

sexual de niños y adolescentes en Irán

188

Wortley & Smallbone (2006), Levenson et al. (2017), Terry & Ackerman

(2008), Letourneau et al. (2017)

Sex victim's

weight

Biological

factors

Wortley & Smallbone (2006), Levenson et al. (2017), Terry & Ackerman

(2008), Smallbone et al. (2013), Letourneau et al. (2017)

Sex victim's

skin

complexion

Terry & Ackerman (2008), Smallbone et al. (2013), Letourneau et al.

(2017)

Sex victim's

hair color

Levenson et al. (2017), Terry & Ackerman (2008), Smallbone et al.

(2013)

Sex victim's

eye color

Wortley & Smallbone (2006), Levenson et al. (2017), Terry & Ackerman

(2008), Smallbone et al. (2013), Letourneau et al. (2017)

Sex victim's

birth rank

Terry & Ackerman (2008), Smallbone et al. (2013), Letourneau et al.

(2017)

Physical

condition

Source: Authors development

Upon identifying the factors affecting the sexual victimization of children and

adolescents and synthesizing them with reference to the Roberts' six-step synthesis

research model, a questionnaire was developed to examine the effect of each factor in

practice.

The results of the study of 22 sex victims and 43 sex offenders in the city of Ardabil,

Iran, showed that the significant factors contributing to the sexual victimization of

children and adolescents were sex victim's level of education and time of victimization,

as well as sex offender's age, marital status, level of education, paternal education, and

maternal education (p<0.05). In addition, only sex victim's skin complexion and hair

color and sex offender's physical condition were significant with respect to the biological

factors (p<0.05). Considering the social factors, sex victim's and sex offender's place of

living, companionship with sexually victimized friends, and presence in unsafe

neighborhoods were significant (p<0.05).

In addition, among the family- and gender-related factors, only the type of

relationship between sex victim and sex offender and having friends who had been

sexually victimized were significant (p<0.05). In this respect, the only economically

influential factors were sex victim's type of housing, gift/money offers to sex victims by

sex offenders, sex victim's parental occupation, sex offender's occupation, income,

family income, and educational facilities at school (p<0.05.(As well, only sex offender's

behavior and high self-esteem, and fear, and sex victim's fear were significant in terms

of the psychological factors (p<0.05). In this line, among the effective factors within the

media-related ones, were the use of satellite and mass media by sex offenders, and

using mass media and watching pornography by sex victims (p<0.05).

Table 2

Demographic factors affecting the sexual victimization of children and adolescents

Factors

Sub-factors

Frequency

Percentage

Significance

level

Sex victim's level

of educational

Elementary

school

83.3

0.000

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First-period

high school

11.1

Second-period

high school

5.6

Time of

victimization

Morning

13.6

0.003

Noon

18.2

Evening

59.1

Night

9.1

Sex offender's age

20-30

46.3

0.002

30-40

31.7

40-50

14.6

50-60

7.3

Sex offender's

marital status

Single

0.000

Married

31.4

Divorced

2.9

Separated

5.7

Sex offender's

paternal education

Illiterate

60.5

0.000

Below a high

school

diploma

26.3

High school

diploma

10.5

Associate's

Degree

2.6

Sex offender's

maternal education

Illiterate

69.2

0.000

Below a high

school

diploma

23.1

High school

diploma

2.6

Associate's

degree

2.6

Master's

degree

2.6

Sex offender's level

of education

Illiterate

30.2

0.000

Below a high

school

diploma

37.2

High school

diploma

Associate's

degree

4.7

Bachelor's

degree

4.7

Master's

degree

9.3

Source: Authors development

Mahdavi, Moazami y Azimzadeh / Presentación de un modelo práctico para la prevención de la victimización

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190

Table 3

Biological factors affecting the sexual victimization of children and

adolescents

Factors

Sub-factors

Frequen

Percentage

Significance

level

Sex victim's skin

complexion

Wheat

0.005

Fair

Swarthy

Green

Sex victim's hair

color

Black

0.001

Blonde

Dark brown

Golden

Brown

Sex offender's

physical condition

Healthy

94.9

0.000

Disabled

5.1

Source: Authors development

Table 4

Social factors affecting the sexual victimization of children and

adolescents

Factors

Sub-factors

Frequen

Percentage

Significa

nce level

Sex victim's place of

living

Urban

95.2

0.000

Rural

4.8

Sex offender's place of

living

Urban

82.9

0.000

Rural

17.1

Companionship with

sexually victimized

friends

Yes

0.000

Presence in unsafe

neighborhoods

Yes

0.000

Source: Authors development

Table 5

Family factors affecting the sexual victimization of children and adolescents

Factors

Sub-factors

Frequency

Percentage

Significance

level

Type of relationship between

sex victim and sex offender

Brother

4.8

0.002

Relative

52.4

Teacher

4.8

Other

38.1

Source: Authors development

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191

Table 6

Gender-related factors affecting the sexual victimization of children and

adolescents

Factors

Sub-factors

Frequen

Percentage

Significan

ce level

Companionship with

sexually victimized

friends

Yes

0.007

Source: Authors development

Table 7

Economic factors affecting the sexual victimization of children and

adolescents

Factors

Sub-factors

Frequen

Percentage

Significance

level

Sex victim's type

of housing

Apartment

38.12

0.012

House

57.1

Other

4.8

Gift/money offers

to sex victims

Yes

81.8

0.004

18.2

Sex victim's

paternal

occupation

Retired

4.8

0.000

Employee

23.8

Self-employed

71.4

Sex victim's

maternal

occupation

Homekeeper

0.000

Retired

4.8

Sex offender's

paternal

occupation

Self-employed

73.17

0.000

Unemployed

7.31

Employee

12.29

Retired

7.32

Sex offender's

maternal

occupation

Deceased

14.29

0.000

Homekeeper

73.81

Self-employed

9.52

Employee

2.38

Sex offender's

occupation

Unemployed

23.1

0.000

Self-employed

64.1

Employee

12.8

Sex offender's

family income

Less than one

million tomans

53.8

0.000

Between one and

two million tomans

25.6

Two to three million

tomans

10.3

Mahdavi, Moazami y Azimzadeh / Presentación de un modelo práctico para la prevención de la victimización

sexual de niños y adolescentes en Irán

192

Three to four

million tomans

2.6

More than five

million tomans

7.7

Sex offender's

income

Less than one

million tomans

57.6

0.000

Between one and

two million tomans

27.3

Two to three million

tomans

More than five

million tomans

12.1

Sex offender's

educational

facilities at school

Very low

32.6

0.000

Low

Moderate

48.8

High

2.3

Very high

2.3

Source: Authors development

Table 8

Psychological factors affecting the sexual victimization of children and

adolescents

Factors

Sub-factors

Frequency

Percentage

Significance

level

Sex offender's behavior

Kind

81.8

0.000

Funny

4.5

Polite

4.5

Violent

4.5

Good

4.5

Reasons for delay in informing

others or parents after sexual

victimization

Fear

73.8

0.001

Maintaining face

15.8

Feeling guilty

10.5

Sex offender's high self-

esteem

Yes

0.017

Source: Authors development

Table 9

Media-related factors affecting the sexual victimization of children and

adolescents

Factors

Sub-factors

Frequen

Percentage

Significan

ce level

Use of satellite

Yes

80.5

0.000

19.5

Use of mass media by

sex offenders

Yes

0.000

Yes

0.000

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193

Use of mass media by

sex victims

Watching pornography

by sex victims

Yes

0.000

Source: Authors development

5. Discussion and Conclusion

The results of the research synthesis demonstrated that eight factors were effective

in the prevention of sexual victimization of children and adolescents. The first factors

were named as the demographic ones and then categorized. In this respect, the results

of the study of 22 sex victims and 43 sex offenders in the city of Ardabil, Iran, showed

that the demographic factors were sex victim's level of education and time of

victimization, as well as sex offender's age, marital status, level of education, paternal

education, and maternal education, which could contribute to the sexual victimization of

children and adolescents, in line with the reports in the related literature by Asadollahi

Haji Kord (2001), Maleki (2005), Najafi Tavana (2005), Pournaji (2008), Motamedi and

Mostofifar (2009), Iman et al. (2011), Mohseni (2013), Terry and Ackerman (2008),

Finkelhor (2009), Bonner-Kidd (2010), Nobles et al. (2012), Smallbone et al. (2013),

Thomas (2015), Kirby (2015), Letourneau et al. (2017), Levenson et al. (2017), and

Stewart et al. (2019).

The second factors were also called the biological ones. The synthesis results

accordingly revealed that sex victim's skin complexion and hair color and sex offender's

physical condition were effective in the sexual victimization of children and adolescents,

which was in agreement with the findings by Wortley and Smallbone (2006), Levenson

et al. (2007), Terry and Ackerman (2008), Smallbone et al. (2013), and Letourneau et

al. (2018).

The social factors as the third factors were sex victim's place of living, sex offender's

place of living, companionship with sexually victimized friends, and presence in unsafe

neighborhoods. The literature also supported these results so that Kazemipour (1998),

Bakhshipour (1998), Kashefi Ismailzadeh (2000), Mahdikhani (2001), Smallbone et al.

(2006), Bottoms et al. 2017), Savioja (2019) had also considered the effect of the

mentioned factors on the sexual victimization of children and adolescents.

The fourth factors were the family-related ones, particularly type of relationship

between sex victim and sex offender, which could contribute to the sexual victimization

of children and adolescents, in consonance with the reports by Namdari (1998), Madani

Ghahfarokhi (2004), Kazemipour (1998), Velen (1996), Madani Ghahfarokhi (2004),

Bakhtiari and Hosseini (2004), and Bagheri (2009).

The fifth factors were also categorized as the gender-related factors, among them,

companionship with sexually victimized friends could affect the sexual victimization of

children and adolescents. The research literature, i.e., Clark (1996), Zorides (1997),

Boesky (2002), Myers (2012), and McCuish (2017) had also verified the obtained results.

Mahdavi, Moazami y Azimzadeh / Presentación de un modelo práctico para la prevención de la victimización

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194

The economic factors were the sixth ones, including sex offender's type of housing,

gift/ money offers to sex victims, occupation, parental occupation, one's own income,

family income, and educational facilities at school, which could lead to the sexual

victimization of children and adolescents, in accordance with the results of the studies

by Bakhshalian (1998), Hatefi (1999), Kashefi Ismailzadeh (2000), Mahdikhani (2001),

Mohammadkhani (2001), Madani Ghahfarokhi (2004), Atouf (2007), Bakhshipour

(2009), Mohseni (2013), Hosseini and Safari (2015), Laws (1989), La Fond (2005),

Levenson et al. (2017), Davidson-Arad (2009), Bonner-Kidd (2010), Smallbone et al.

(2013), Kirby (2015), Letourneau et al. (2017), Stewart et al. (2019), and Thompson

(2020).

The seventh factors were categorized as the psychological factors, such as sex

offender's behavior and high self-esteem and sex victim's fear, which could contribute

to the sexual victimization of children and adolescents. The related literature, viz. Rutter

and Giller (1983), Goldstein (1991), Stuewig & McCloskey (2005), Smallbone et al.

(2006), Curcio et al. (2013). Woodward et al. (2017), and Savioja (2019) had also

bolstered these results.

The eighth factors were named the media-related ones, including use of satellite and

mass media by sex offenders, as well as use of mass media and watching pornography

by sex victims, which were effective in the sexual victimization of children and

adolescents, consistent with the results of the studies by Sadeghi Fasaei et al. (2010),

Towhidi and Fazli (2014), Bagheri (2015), Peters and Bullman (1996), Horowitz (2007),

Kadiri and Muhammed (2010), Wijkman (2014), Choi et al. (2017), Wykes ( 2017), and

Letourneau et al. (2018).

According to the results of the present study and the related literature, the model

developed here was approved theoretically and practically.

Tabla 10

The model

for the

prevention

of sexual

victimization

of children

and

adolescents

Demographic

Sex victim's level of education and time of victimization, sex

offender's age, marital status, education, paternal education,

and maternal education

Biological

Sex victim's skin complexion and hair color, and sex

offender's physical condition

Social

Sex victim's place of living, sex offender's place of living,

companionship with sexually victimized friends, and presence

in unsafe neighborhoods

Family-related

Type of relationship between sex victim and sex offender

Gender-

Companionship with sexually victimized friends

Economic

Sex victim's type of housing, gift/money offers to sex victims

by sex offenders, sex victim's parental occupation, sex

offender's occupation, income, family income, and

educational facilities at school

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195

Psychological

Sex victim's behavior, reasons for delay in informing others

or parents after sexual victimization, and sex offender's high

self-esteem

Media-related

Sex offender's use of satellite and mass media, sex victim's

use of mass media, and watching pornography

Source: Authors development

Suggestions

It was suggested to implement and evaluate the proposed model to prevent the

sexual victimization of children and adolescents in further studies.

Limitations

In this study, a questionnaire was administered to collect the data; as a result, some

respondents might have refused to provide real answers. As the study samples were sex

victims and offenders in the city of Ardabil, the results should be extended to other

regions with more caution.

Acknowledgments

The authors hereby extend their gratitude to the sincere cooperation of the directors

and staff of the Judiciary System and the Prisons and Security and Corrective Measures

Organization in Ardabil province, Iran. This article was taken from the Doctoral

Dissertation of Criminal Law and Criminology, fulfilled at Islamic Azad University, Ardabil

Branch, Iran, with the approval code no. 139891666.

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