© The Authors, 2021, Published by the Universidad del Zulia*Corresponding author: silviacrisco@yahoo.com
Silvia Carrera
*
Nelson Gutiérrez Guzmán
Joel Girón Hernández
Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2022, 39(2): e223927
ISSN 2477-9407
DOI: https://doi.org/10.47280/RevFacAgron(LUZ).v39.n2.05
Food Technology
Associate editor:
Dra. Gretty R. Ettiene Rojas
University of Zulia, Faculty of Agronomy
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
Keywords:
Chlorides
Fish-processing
Innovation
Moisture
Water activity
Physico-chemical quality of sh products marketed in Colombia
Calidad sicoquímica de productos pesqueros comercializados en Colombia
Qualidade físico-química dos produtos pesqueiros comercializados na Colômbia
Facultad de Ingeniería, Grupo de Investigación Agroindustria
USCO, Universidad Surcolombiana, Neiva, Huila, Colombia.
Received: 19-08-2021
Accepted: 14-03-2022
Published: 18-04-2022
Abstract
The nutritional characteristics of sh products have positioned them
as one of the fastest growing food categories worldwide. Additionally,
for developing innovative foods, it is crucial to understand the physico-
chemical properties of commercial products and to be familiar with the food
industry regulations that determine the criteria and specications for new
developments. For this purpose, frequency questionnaires were applied to
sh products marketed in the retail sector. Additionally, processed products
were selected for analytical determinations of moisture, NaCl content, and
water activity. The results showed that 80% of the products are marketed
in large supermarkets with 20% in local markets. It was also observed that
79% of the products are of national origin. The highest salt contents on a
dry basis (~48%) were determined on smoked salmon and salted-smoked
herring samples, while tilapia patties showed the lowest NaCl values on a
dry basis ~6%. Within the Colombian market, products with a high degree of
processing are imported and they contain higher salt contents. The national
product offers low processing levels, being mainly frozen llets. This opens
the possibility for the development of innovative products using local raw
materials.
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2022, 39(2): 7. April - June. ISSN 2477-9407.
2-6 |
Resumen
Las características nutricionales de los productos pesqueros, los ha
posicionado entre las categorías de alimentos con mayor crecimiento
en el mundo. Adicionalmente, para el desarrollo de alimentos
innovadores, es importante conocer los parámetros sicoquímicos
de productos comerciales y la reglamentación de la industria
alimentaria, lo que determina los criterios para nuevos desarrollos.
Con este propósito, se aplicaron cuestionarios de frecuencia sobre
productos de la pesca comercializados en diferentes establecimientos.
Además, se seleccionaron productos transformados a los que se les
realizaron determinaciones analíticas de: humedad, contenido de
NaCl y actividad de agua. Los resultados mostraron que el 80% de
los productos se comercializan en grandes supercies, el porcentaje
restante en mercados locales. El 79% del pescado comercializado es
de origen nacional. Los productos con mayores contenidos de sal en
base seca (~48%) fueron el salmón ahumado y el arenque salado-
ahumado, las hamburguesas de tilapia mostraron los menores valores
de NaCl en base seca ~6%. En el mercado colombiano los productos
con alto grado de procesamiento son los importados, los cuales
presentan mayores contenidos de sal. El producto nacional ofrece
bajos niveles de transformación, comercializándose principalmente
letes congelados. Esto abre la posibilidad al desarrollo de productos
innovadores con materia prima local.
Palabras clave: actividad de agua, cloruros, humedad, innovación,
transformación
Resumo
As características nutricionais dos produtos de peixe
posicionaram-nos entre as categorias alimentares de crescimento mais
rápido do mundo. Além disso, para o desenvolvimento de alimentos
inovadores, é importante conhecer os parâmetros físico-químicos dos
produtos comerciais e os regulamentos da indústria alimentar, que
determinam os critérios para novos desenvolvimentos. Para este m,
foram aplicados questionários de frequência aos produtos da pesca
comercializados em diferentes estabelecimentos. Além disso, foram
seleccionados produtos processados para determinações analíticas
de: humidade, teor de NaCl e actividade da água. Os resultados
mostraram que 80% dos produtos são comercializados em grandes
supermercados, sendo a percentagem restante nos mercados locais.
Setenta e nove por cento do peixe comercializado é de origem
nacional. Os produtos com o maior teor de sal em base seca (~48%)
eram salmão fumado e arenque fumado com sal, os patés de tilápia
apresentaram os valores mais baixos de NaCl em base seca ~6%.
No mercado colombiano, os produtos com um elevado grau de
transformação são produtos importados, que têm um maior teor de
sal. O produto nacional oferece baixos níveis de transformação, sendo
principalmente comercializado como letes congelados. Isto abre a
possibilidade para o desenvolvimento de produtos inovadores com
matéria-prima local.
Palavras-chave: actividade da água, cloretos, humidade, inovação,
transformação
Introduction
Fish by-products are considered food products of great importance
due to they contain proteins, lipids, minerals, essential fatty acids, and
vitamins that improve health and life expectancy (Kwasek et al., 2020).
It is estimated that sh and sh products comprise approximately
55% of total per capita animal protein intake; therefore, they are
considered the most important source of animal protein in the diet of
many countries (FAO, 2020). The processing of raw material to obtain
high-quality products with good nutritional value is signicantly
inuenced by the type of processing, the parameters chosen, and their
preparation (Karásková et al., 2011). In sh processing, some of the
most widely applied methods for preserving its quality are smoking
(Ruiz-Alonso et al., 2021), salting (Wawire et al., 2019), and canning
(Bell et al., 2019).
Smoking is a traditional preservation method used for both sh
and meat products worldwide (Ledesma et al., 2016). Currently,
salted-smoked sh products are widely accepted due to their avor,
aroma, and increase in their shelf life, all due to the combined effects
of dehydrating, the antimicrobial, and antioxidant activity resulting
from the process (Karásková et al., 2011). There is a wide variety
of smoked sh that diversies the market, not only in its proximal
composition but also in other parameters related to conservation and
sensory characteristics (Fuentes et al., 2010b). In sh processing the
smoking and/or salting methods have been applied in commercial sh
species such as tilapia Oreochromis niloticus (Ayeloja et al., 2020),
salmon Salmo salar (Muñoz et al., 2020), and Pangasius Pangasius
hypophthalmus (Sokamte et al., 2020).
Canning is another popular method for processing and preserving
sh (Bell et al., 2019) while maintaining its nutritional value and
quality (Usydus et al., 2008). Canned sh are processed in canned
or glass containers that are heated to a specic temperature for a
specied time and subsequently, hermetically sealed (Elshehawy &
Farag, 2019). During the last decades, an increasing part of the diet
is composed of fast food and ready-made convenience foods. In this
sense, innovations in the sh industry are becoming increasingly
popular because consumers demand healthy products that are easy
to prepare (Farias et al., 2021) and whose production generates the
least possible environmental impact on the same natural resources
(Halpern et al
., 2019).
Currently, an important percentage of sh is processed by
different methods and subsequently packaged, which increases the
options of sh-based products available to the consumer (Kilincceker
et al., 2009).
These processes tend to modify the physical and chemical
properties of the raw material, such as pH, water activity (a
w
), color,
texture, among others., so, the physicochemical control of these
parameters in the nished product is of great importance to ensure the
quality of the food industry (Fuentes et al., 2010a).
Chloride content is one of the physicochemical parameters of
importance in smoked and/or salted products, due to it has a strong
inuence on the avor, a
w,
and shelf life (Karásková et al., 2011).
Another important parameter is the water retention capacity, which
is closely related to the sensory characteristics of the product, and to
changes in the muscle proteins of the raw material, which in a certain
way determine the juiciness of the meat (Chan et al., 2020), as well as
color and avor (Fuentes et al., 2010b).
For consumers, another relevant criterion for the purchase of a
product, apart from its shelf life, is the nal appearance. In the food
industry, the packaging of products derived from shing is important,
especially in the case of smoked products, where materials that
facilitate the appreciation of the product by the consumer should be
used (Olsen et al., 2017).
% 

=
(
1
−
2
)
(
0
)
× 100
% 

=
(
1
−
2
)
(
2
)
× 100
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Carrera et al. Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2022, 39(2): e223927
3-6 |
Analytical determinations carried out on shery products are
useful to know their chemical composition and the main quality
parameters, as well as to establish common characteristics in these
types of products. This information is valuable for producers and
researchers in the generation of new products. Additionally, there is
a pressing need on the part of consumers to acquire healthier and
easily prepared foods, due to the diverse daily activities that modern
society develops, mainly in large cities (Berizia et al., 2018). This is
how sh is considered an excellent source of protein and an important
income-generating business, mainly in developing countries, which
join the global trend of reducing extractive shing and making greater
investments in aquaculture, which has become a promising and
growing activity (Guidini-Lopes et al., 2016). Therefore, the present
work aimed to evaluate the physicochemical quality of products
derived from shing acquired from several establishments in the
Colombian territory, knowing the consumption pattern of processed
sh products by determining moisture content (wb, db), NaCl content
(wb, db) and w
a
, in order to establish parameters in the development
of future products.
Materials and methods
Survey design and application
A survey of frequencies was carried out to obtain information
between 2018 and 2020, on the different sh-based products found in
the national market. The survey was structured in six (6) sections: A)
store characteristics, B) type of processing, C) packaging, D) storage
conditions, E) origin and F) sodium chloride (NaCl) content.
Analytical determinations
Based on the results of the survey application, nine products with
sodium chloride and/or smoke in their composition were selected,
and their moisture content was determined on a wet basis (bh) and
on a dry basis (bs), as well as their content of NaCl and a
w
. For all the
analytical determinations, at least four repetitions per sample were
carried out, in the Laboratorio de Bromatología de la Universidad
Surcolombiana. The nine samples of sh products were identied as
smoked salmon (SS), salted-smoked Arenque (SSA), smoked tuna
loins (STL), tilapia loins (TL), tilapia sausage (TS), tilapia patty
(TP), crab legs (CL), canned pink salmon (CPS) and whole salted
sh (WSF).
Moisture content
Moisture determination was performed following the procedures
described
by AOAC (1990). Three (~3) grams of sea sand were
deposited on metal weighing scales and a glass rod and dried in
a UF30 plus oven (Memmert GmbH + Co. KG, Germany) at 105 °C
for 24 h. Subsequently, they were tempered in a desiccator and
weighed on an analytical balance, and ~3 grams of previously
crushed samples were added. With the glass rod, the sample was
homogenized with the sea sand to favor the exit of water from the
product. The samples were taken to 105 ºC for another 24 hours,
after which period, the weighing scales were tempered in the
desiccator, to then record their mass. The moisture percentage was
expressed in g of water per 100 g
-1
of the sample, calculated using
the following equations:
Where:
m
1
: initial mass of the sample, rod and weighing scale in grams.
m
2
: initial mass of the sample, rod, and weighing scale in grams.
p
o
: mass of the sample in grams.
Content of NaCl
The salt content was calculated using the methodology proposed
by Ruiz-Alonso et al. (2021) with some modications. Samples of
one (1) of each of the selected products were taken, to homogenize
each sample in 100 mL of distilled water employing an Ultra-turrax
T-25 (IKA Works Inc., Germany). The supernatant obtained was
vacuum ltered and an aliquot of 100 µL was taken to be evaluated in
a Sherwood mod 926S chloride analyzer (Sherwood Scientic Ltd.,
UK). The determination of chlorides on a wet basis (NaCl
wb
) and on a
dry basis (NaCl
db
) were determined by using the following equations:
Where:
XNaCL = chloride content
X
w
= moisture content
Water activity (a
w
)
Water activity measurements were performed using an AquaLab®
CX-2 dew point hygrometer (Decagon Devices Inc., USA).
Statistical analysis
Descriptive analyses of the information were carried out with the
data acquired from the frequency surveys. In the second part of the
study, to evaluate the differences in the physicochemical parameters
between the selected products, an analysis of variance (Simple
ANOVA) was used, with separation of means by Tukey’s test,
with a condence level of 95%. For all cases, compliance with the
assumptions of homogeneity of variance and normality was veried.
The analyses were carried out using Statgraphics 5.0 (Manugistics,
Inc., USA).
Results and discussion
Characterization of the sh products market
Information was collected from 168 products including sh,
seafood, and/or their processed products, present in the Colombian
market (gure 1).
Figure 1. Characterization of the market for sh products: sh,
seafood, and/or their processed products.
% 

=
(
1
−
2
)
(
0
)
× 100
% 

=
(
1
−
2
)
(
2
)
× 100


=

1 −


=  0.01
0,1
 
100
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2022, 39(2): 7. April - June. ISSN 2477-9407.
4-6 |
In the analyzed products, it was observed that the majority are
marketed in large supply chains (supermarkets and/or wholesale
stores), while the remaining percentage of products are sold in
marketplaces or retail stores (gure 1A).
Regarding the type of processing (gure 1B), it was found that
sh llet (fresh or frozen) is the preferred format for sale; whole
sh and sausage products are also marketed, which are made with
the part of the sh that remains after lleting. Regarding packaging
(gure 1C), the products are sold vacuum-packed, canned, in
ordinary bags, or without any type of packaging. Regarding storage
conditions (gure 1D), the products are sold frozen or fresh.
Additionally, in relation to the origin of the raw material (gure 1E),
most of the products found are national, i.e. grown, processed, and
packaged in the country; imported products present a higher degree
of processing with more elaborate packaging. Regarding NaCl
content (gure 1F), it was found that many of the products analyzed
had information related to sodium chloride content printed on their
packaging. Vacuum-packed products reported NaCl concentrations
between 198-440 mg, with frozen shrimp reporting the lowest
values and canned products the highest values. In Colombia, the
technical regulation, resolution 810 of 2021 of the “Ministerio de
Salud y Protección Social” on nutritional labeling requirements to
be met by packaged or packaged foods for human consumption
was recently established, which includes among others the sodium
chloride content. However, since 2018, information on the chemical
composition of food is consigned following the parameters given
by resolution 1407 of the “Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo
Sostenible”, which regulated the use of paper, cardboard, plastic,
glass, and metal packaging, and which has a direct impact on the
industrial sector. In many countries, food products available in
supermarkets are tracked through an online database including
nutritional information (Kretser et al., 2017) allowing easier control
of sodium chloride levels (Cardoso et al., 2019). In Colombia,
INVIMA is the national regulatory agency for surveillance and
control that works for the protection of individual and collective
health, through the application of health standards associated with
the consumption and use of food, medicines, medical devices, and
other products subject to health surveillance.
Analytical determinations of evaluated products
Figure 2 shows the moisture contents on a wet and dry basis for
the analyzed products.
Figure 2. Moisture content of sh products: sh, seafood, and/
or their processed products. Similar letters indicate
homogeneous groups.
Statically signicant differences were found for moisture
content in both cases (p < 0.05). Water was the component found
in the highest proportion in all the analyzed samples varying from
72.76 ± 0.65 in CPS and from 61.06 ± 0.16 in TP (gure 2A). When
studying the moisture content on a dry basis (gure 2B), the same
behavior was observed, nding the highest results in SER (2.67 ±
0.08) and the lowest value in TP (1.56 ± 0.01).
Table 1 shows the results obtained for chloride mass fractions
and water activity.
Table 1. Physicochemical analysis of sh-based products
marketed in Colombian territory. w
a
: Water activity;
NaCl
wb
: Sodium chloride on a wet basis; NaCl
db
:
Sodium chloride on a dry basis.
Product w
a
NaCl
wb
(%) NaCl
db
(%)
SSA*** 0.982 ± 0.003
bc
16.68 ± 0.52
a
48.17 ± 2.14
a
TP*** 0.982 ± 0.001
bc
6.23 ± 0.29
d
16.02 ± 0.79
d
STL*** 0.982 ± 0.002
bc
9.72 ± 0.24
c
31.07 ± 0.81
c
TL*** 0.993 ± 0.000
a
10.26 ± 0.42
c
31.71 ± 1.27
c
WSF*** 0.985 ± 0.001
b
12.61 ± 0.20
b
41.70 ± 0.86
b
CL*** 0.976 ± 0.001
cd
15.08 ± 0.17
b
44.04 ± 0.55
ab
SS*** 0.975 ± 0.004
d
15.01 ± 0.45
b
48.70 ± 1.34
a
CPS*** 0.989 ± 0.001
ab
7.60 ± 0.18
d
27.99 ± 1.26
c
TS*** 0.986 ± 0.001
b
10.46 ± 1.13
c
31.03 ± 3.31
c
SS: Smoked salmon; SSA: Salted-smoked Arenque; STL: Smoked tuna loins;
TL: tilapia loin; TS: tilapia sausage; TP: tilapia patty; CL:crab legs; CPS:
Canned pink salmon; WSF: Whole salted sh. Similar letters in the same column
indicate homogeneous group membership. Signicance level (α): ***p < 0.001
Signicant differences (p < 0.001) were found for the three
variables in the different products selected. Canning is one of the
most important means of sh preservation in which two thermal
steps are included (cooking and sterilization); both sh enzymes
and bacteria must be permanently inactivated by heat (Rodriguez et
al., 2009). The relationship between NaCl content, water activity,
and shelf life in products that have been industrially processed has
an effect on factors such as packaging, production method, and
product quality (Karásková et al., 2011). The preservative role of
sodium chloride in food is attributed to a reduction in water activity
(w
a
), which decreases enzymatic activity and water available as
a nutrient for microorganisms (Amorim-Gomes et al., 2021).
Regarding the water activity parameter, values ranging from ~0.993
for TL to ~0.975 for SS samples were determined. The spoilage of
refrigerated and minimally processed fresh sh is mainly attributed
to bacterial activity. The reduction of water activity to a value below
0.95 has a pronounced effect on the growth rate of bacteria (Tsironi
& Taoukis, 2014), as well as there is also a prevalence of lactobacilli
to grow rapidly in anaerobic conditions and at low temperatures
so it is common for them to develop in vacuum-packed foods
(González-Rodríguez et al., 2002)
The values obtained for the mass fraction of sodium chloride
on a wet basis (xNaCL
wb
) was 16.68% ± 0.52 for SSA, whose
preparation requires a brine bath, which is why it could present
the highest levels of chlorides; similar results were found in sh
products by Koral et al. (2010). The results with the lowest values
This scientic publication in digital format is a continuation of the Printed Review: Legal Deposit pp 196802ZU42, ISSN 0378-7818.
Carrera et al. Rev. Fac. Agron. (LUZ). 2022, 39(2): e223927
5-6 |
of about 6.23% ± 0.29 were presented in the TP samples. Sodium
chloride is the main factor that prevents bacterial growth and provides
product safety; although salt content retards bacterial spoilage, studies
have shown that there are a number of bacteria that can grow in high
salt concentrations such as Lactobacillus (Liu et al., 2021).
The sodium chloride content has a strong inuence on the avor
of the product, as well as on the decrease in the water activity and,
consequently, on the shelf life. In this regard, it has been shown
that the shelf life of processed smoked sh can vary between two to
three weeks depending on the concentration of sodium chloride in
the aqueous phase (4.6 or 2.2%, w/w) (Hansen et al., 1995). For this
reason, controlling the sodium chloride content during sh processing
is one of the priorities for the shing industry. Currently, the demand
for salted sh is driven more by the aroma and avor of the product
than by its preservation (Mujaffar & Sankat, 2006). As an alternative,
studies have been conducted substituting sodium chloride with
potassium chloride (KCl) (Rodriguez et al., 2006) mainly because
it has been shown to have fewer negative effects on human health
(Kimura et al., 2004). However, in Colombia, the use of KCl as a
substitute for NaCl in any type of food has not yet been regulated.
Sodium and chloride ions are necessary for the human body because
they play important roles in the circulatory and digestive systems.
Sodium ions are necessary to maintain blood pressure and volume
and chloride ions maintain the acid-base balance necessary for the
formation of hydrochloric acid in the stomach for the digestive
process (Galvis-Sánchez et al., 2011).
The form of processing has been shown to have a crucial impact
on the quality and nutritional value of the nal product. However, if
preservation and processing techniques are combined and applied in
an innovative way, high-quality products with adequate nutritional
value can be obtained (Dama et al., 2021). Given that aquaculture
is the fastest-growing agro-industrial sector worldwide and that
consumers are increasingly interested in obtaining high quality,
nutritious, healthy, and easy-to-prepare products, the transformation
of raw material by salting-smoking methods can result in innovative
products that meet consumer expectations and in turn favor the growth
of the aquaculture industry. From the results observed, the samples
analyzed presented NaCl values above 3.5%, the minimum content
recommended by the Codex Alimentarius (Betancourt-Sambony et
al., 2020) to provide safety in refrigerated foods derived from sh;
however, the products studied presented levels higher than 5% NaCl,
which can affect consumer health.
Conclusion
The Colombian market for sh by-products is mostly of national
origin; imported products, although they present a more complex
degree of processing, they include contents of NaCl above the
recommendations of international organizations. Therefore, it is
necessary to encourage the national industry, by applying salting and/
or smoking procedures to local raw materials, and controlling the salt
content in order to offer innovative developments that comply with
the parameters recommended by Codex Alimentarius.
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