Instituto de Estudios Políticos y Derecho Público "Dr. Humberto J. La Roche"
de la Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas de la Universidad del Zulia
Maracaibo, Venezuela
Esta publicación cientíca en formato digital es continuidad de la revista impresa
ISSN-Versión Impresa 0798-1406 / ISSN-Versión on line 2542-3185Depósito legal pp
197402ZU34
ppi 201502ZU4645
Vol.39 N° 71
2021
Recibido el 14/08/2021 Aceptado el 27/11/2021
ISSN 0798- 1406 ~ De pó si to le gal pp 198502ZU132
Cues tio nes Po lí ti cas
La re vis ta Cues tio nes Po lí ti cas, es una pu bli ca ción aus pi cia da por el Ins ti tu to
de Es tu dios Po lí ti cos y De re cho Pú bli co “Dr. Hum ber to J. La Ro che” (IEPDP) de la Fa-
cul tad de Cien cias Ju rí di cas y Po lí ti cas de la Uni ver si dad del Zu lia.
En tre sus ob je ti vos fi gu ran: con tri buir con el pro gre so cien tí fi co de las Cien cias
Hu ma nas y So cia les, a tra vés de la di vul ga ción de los re sul ta dos lo gra dos por sus in ves-
ti ga do res; es ti mu lar la in ves ti ga ción en es tas áreas del sa ber; y pro pi ciar la pre sen ta-
ción, dis cu sión y con fron ta ción de las ideas y avan ces cien tí fi cos con com pro mi so so cial.
Cues tio nes Po lí ti cas apa re ce dos ve ces al año y pu bli ca tra ba jos ori gi na les con
avan ces o re sul ta dos de in ves ti ga ción en las áreas de Cien cia Po lí ti ca y De re cho Pú bli-
co, los cua les son so me ti dos a la con si de ra ción de ár bi tros ca li fi ca dos.
ESTA PU BLI CA CIÓN APA RE CE RE SE ÑA DA, EN TRE OTROS ÍN DI CES, EN
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Re vicyhLUZ, In ter na tio nal Po li ti cal Scien ce Abs tracts, Re vis ta In ter ame ri ca na de
Bi blio gra fía, en el Cen tro La ti no ame ri ca no para el De sa rrol lo (CLAD), en Bi blio-
gra fía So cio Eco nó mi ca de Ve ne zue la de RE DIN SE, In ter na tio nal Bi blio graphy of
Po li ti cal Scien ce, Re vencyt, His pa nic Ame ri can Pe rio di cals In dex/HAPI), Ul ri ch’s
Pe rio di cals Di rec tory, EBS CO. Se en cuen tra acre di ta da al Re gis tro de Pu bli ca cio-
nes Cien tí fi cas y Tec no ló gi cas Ve ne zo la nas del FO NA CIT, La tin dex.
Di rec to ra
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OIRALITH
M. C
HIRINOS
P
ORTILLO
Co mi té Edi tor
Eduviges Morales Villalobos
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Co mi té Ase sor
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J. M. Del ga do Ocan do
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Ri car do Com bel las
An gel Lom bar di
Die ter Nohlen
Al fre do Ra mos Ji mé nez
Go ran Ther born
Frie drich Welsch
Asis ten tes Ad mi nis tra ti vos
Joan López Urdaneta y Nil da Ma rín
Re vis ta Cues tio nes Po lí ti cas. Av. Gua ji ra. Uni ver si dad del Zu lia. Nú cleo Hu ma nís ti co. Fa-
cul tad de Cien cias Ju rí di cas y Po lí ti cas. Ins ti tu to de Es tu dios Po lí ti cos y De re cho Pú bli co
“Dr. Hum ber to J. La Ro che”. Ma ra cai bo, Ve ne zue la. E- mail: cues tio nes po li ti cas@gmail.
com ~ loi chi ri nos por til lo@gmail.com. Te le fax: 58- 0261- 4127018.
Vol. 39, Nº 71 (2021), 643-659
IEPDP-Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas - LUZ
The eect of individual dierences on the
cognitive processes of a witness during
interrogation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.46398/cuestpol.3971.39
Marina Anatoleyvna Kaluzhina *
Vadim Victorovich Verstov **
Yuri Alekseevich Bondarenko ***
Tatiana Sergeevna Balugina ****
Alexander Ivanovich Natura *****
Abstract
The article presents an analysis of the dierent existing
conceptions of interrogation and, at the same time, indicates
the ambiguity of approaches to the examination of witnesses
according to the type of crime, the body conducting the
investigation and the tactics used. The study explores the
eect of individual dierences on the cognitive processes of witnesses
in a simulated interrogation. The authors conducted a survey using the
Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) method. The groups of witnesses
are divided not by the types of temperament per se but according to the
set of temperamental characteristics (introversion and extraversion;
neuroticism) and controlling the sincerity of the interviewees during the
test, which signicantly improves the reliability of the conclusions (Eysenck
Personality Inventory). Finally, the study experimentally demonstrates that
the speed of the mental reactions of the witnesses is not uniform and varies
according to their temperamental characteristics. This gives reason to
arm the need to adapt to dierent groups of witnesses before and during
their interrogation, giving an account of the peculiarities of their perception
and processing of information.
Keywords: interrogation; witness; personality; individuality;
temperament.
* Kuban State University, Krasnodar, Russia; Research Institute of the Federal Penitentiary Service of
Russia, Moscow, Russia. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4603-4129
** Kuban State University, Krasnodar, Russia. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8051-8840
*** Kuban State University, Krasnodar, Russia. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5750-685X
**** Kuban State University, Krasnodar, Russia. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4465-1668
***** Kuban State University, Krasnodar, Russia. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9567-7705
644
Marina Anatoleyvna Kaluzhina, Vadim Victorovich Verstov, Yuri Alekseevich Bondarenko,
Tatiana Sergeevna Balugina y Alexander Ivanovich Natura
The eect of individual dierences on the cognitive processes of a witness during interrogation
El efecto de las diferencias individuales en los procesos
cognitivos de un testigo durante el interrogatorio
Resumen
El artículo presenta un análisis de las diferentes concepciones existentes
del interrogatorio y, al mismo tiempo, indica la ambigüedad de los enfoques
del interrogatorio de testigos según el tipo de delito, el organismo que
realiza la investigación y las tácticas utilizadas. El estudio explora el efecto
de las diferencias individuales en los procesos cognitivos de los testigos en
un interrogatorio simulado. Los autores realizaron una encuesta utilizando
el método Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI). Los grupos de testigos
se dividen no por los tipos de temperamento per se sino en función del
conjunto de características temperamentales (introversión y extraversión;
neuroticismo) y controlando la sinceridad de los entrevistados durante la
prueba, lo que mejora signicativamente la abilidad de las conclusiones
(Inventario de Personalidad de Eysenck). Finalmente, el estudio demuestra
experimentalmente que la velocidad de las reacciones mentales de los
testigos no es uniforme y varía según sus características temperamentales.
Esto da razón para armar la necesidad de adaptarse a diferentes
grupos de testigos antes y durante su interrogatorio, dando cuenta de las
peculiaridades de su percepción y procesamiento de la información.
Palabras clave: interrogatorio; testigo; personalidad; individualidad;
temperamento.
Introduction
The existing and applied systems of methods for crime witness
interrogation show insucient eectiveness in exposing lies and preventing
self-incrimination and perjury. This situation is due to the widespread
dissemination of information about the means and methods of police
work and the wide spread of practical psychological techniques that allow
adjusting one’s mental prole before and after committing a crime. In this
situation, the arsenal of police interrogation tools needs to be strengthened
by new techniques not directly associated with an open confrontation with
a witness or a suspect (Horák et al., 2021; Soldz et al., 2017).
An increased interest in the psychological foundations of interrogation
is observed in recent years. Ultimately, this interest is manifested in the
concept of mediated interrogation that does not directly address the core
issues for which it is conducted. An essential aspect of this process is the
cognitive abilities and emotional state of the interrogated person. All of the
above has a signicant impact on the interrogation program, which leads to
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Vol. 39 Nº 71 (2021): 643-659
its practical individualization (Morgan et al., 2020; Sambrano et al., 2021;
Vrij et al., 2019).
The inclusivity of interrogation methods also manifests in choosing the
interrogation setting designed to obtain a confession or to exclude self-
incrimination. These methods are quite diverse, but the practice has revealed
their usefulness in creating a comfortable psychological environment and
establishing and maintaining psychological contact with the witness, as
well as ample opportunities to apply the emotional components of the
interrogation and the generally lower number of false testimonies given
(Swanner et al., 2016).
It can be stated that the conducted research on the course of mental
processes in the minds of the interrogated primarily focuses on assessing
their emotional state. On this basis, criteria for the evaluation of the mental
state of the interrogated, their prevailing psychological characteristics,
fears, and directions for establishing cooperation are identied.
Analysis of literature on the studied problem points to ecient research
on the feelings of interrogated persons as a basis for the construction of
methods for examining their mental processes. The “feeling-as-information”
theory introduced into the scientic arsenal explores changes in a person’s
perception of information depending on their current emotional state (anger,
sadness, happiness) and the resulting erroneous data, false confessions of
guilt, and other untruthful information. It is found that dierent emotional
states can produce similar emotions and accounting for this pattern allows
supplementing the interrogation program for further precise correction
and adjustment to the witness (Sambrano et al., 2021).
The situation of interrogation implies the objective of obtaining credible
testimony from a witness to provide the court with a basis for the allegations
of the prosecution or defense (Rudenko and Senchikova, 2021).
Our study reects the individual characteristics of witnesses as mass
participants in investigations. We chose to dierentiate witnesses by their
temperament since it is a fundamental characteristic of any personality.
Knowledge of the patterns of emotional and cognitive processes serves
as a prerequisite for forensic and psychological analysis of a witness’
personality and has an impact on the processes of testimony formation and
the identication of deliberately false testimony.
The goals of the study lie in the identication and analysis of individual
dierences in witnesses’ cognitive processes in the situation of a simulated
interrogation. Determining such individual dierences is required for more
rational planning of witness interrogation.
The methods used in the study include the analysis and synthesis of
scientic information, summarization and classication of factual data,
646
Marina Anatoleyvna Kaluzhina, Vadim Victorovich Verstov, Yuri Alekseevich Bondarenko,
Tatiana Sergeevna Balugina y Alexander Ivanovich Natura
The eect of individual dierences on the cognitive processes of a witness during interrogation
situation modeling, comparison method, and testing (Eysenck Personality
Inventory determining the types of temperament; Schulte tables studying
the characteristics of attention).
The obtained data are processed using the methods of primary and
secondary mathematical statistics, as well as the mathematical method of
data interpretation. The psychological foundations of investigative tactics
are considered as their starting points serving as a means of determining
the tactical techniques. Works on general and legal psychology are analyzed
(Antonian et al., 1996; Enikeev, 1996; Granovskaia, 1997; Ratinov, 1967;
Vedernikov, 1968).
Interrogation requires the investigator to have a set of qualities such
as professional culture and ethics, knowledge and understanding of
human psychology, and skilled psychological inuence, as well as the
mastery of tactical and criminalistic techniques. An interrogation involves
obtaining information regarding the factual background of the event under
investigation from a witness. The purpose of an interrogation is to obtain a
testimony that is the most complete and objectively reects reality.
Essentially, interrogation is the most “psychologized investigative
action” (Antonian et al., 1996) associated with the personal characteristics
of the investigator and the witness, as well as the individual psychological
characteristics of their interaction. Each person has a unique reaction
to dierent arguments, their own pace and rhythm of conversation, and
without accounting for the individual characteristics of a person, it will be
dicult for an investigator to establish contact with a stranger. This obliges
an investigator to have mastery of the means of interaction relying on the
knowledge of the mental processes of an individual.
Thorough preparation for an interrogation implies gathering
information on the personality of a witness to determine the model of their
actions and behavior during interrogation. Thus, from the very beginning
of studying the personality of the interrogated, an investigator must focus
their professional attention on the typology of their personality, as well as
on the individual properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics
of a person’s mental activity (Kashapov and Seramovich, 2020). Here,
emphasis is put on the behavioral stereotypes manifesting in the speed of
reaction to stimuli and the subsequent correction of behavior prior to a new
reaction to a stimulus.
The commonly used psycho-typological methods are based on the
classic psychological division of people into extroverts and introverts. The
criminalistic study of personality began with typological studies and several
authors argue that it is rational to study the temperament of a person who
committed a crime (Krivoshein, 2001).
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Considering the typology of temperament, temperament meaningfully
incorporates not only personal and behavioral aspects, but also the cognitive
processes of an individual that help to work with them. The content side of
this work is designing a plan of conversation with a witness accounting for
the risks that arise for each type of temperament.
It should be noted that the dynamic side of interrogation is essentially
associated with temperament, as well as with the cognitive processes of the
person being interrogated (e.g., attention and memory). If an investigator
wants to achieve success, they must plan the pace, rhythm, duration, and
level of intensity of the interrogation considering the individual mental
characteristics of the interrogated.
The study and identication of the types of the temperament of the
interrogated allow determining the specics of their cognitive sphere and
emotional behavior during interrogation (Vilenskaya, 2020) which, in
turn, allows individualizing the interrogation tactic. An investigator’s use
of psychological knowledge on the individual mental processes and specic
characteristics of a person makes it possible to determine the set of tactical
techniques to be used during interrogation in advance.
Physician Claudius Galen proposed the rst typology of temperament
more than two thousand years ago. The four types identied by him are
currently considered as the main ones – sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic,
and melancholic. While Galen associated temperament with the patterns
of metabolism in the body, I.P. Pavlov indicated the contingency of
temperament on the type of nervous system.
The scientist revealed the patterns of higher nervous activity and found
them to be the basis of temperament along with individual characteristics
of conditioned reex activity. Pavlov believed that the characteristics of
nervous processes determine the type of nervous activity, which, in turn,
is closely associated with the type of temperament (strength, weakness,
equilibrium, and mobility of the nervous system) (Averin, 1999).
Experiments in practical psychology have supported the legitimacy of
Pavlov’s approach and led to it becoming a basis for further detalization.
The additional properties of the nervous system (dynamism and lability)
were also substantiated which provided for the integration of temperament
into the structure of personality. Temperament shapes the formal and
dynamic, process aspect of the human psyche and answers the “how”
question. Temperament manifests in all spheres of human mental activity:
the emotional, cognitive, and volitional. Thus, temperament is a biological
foundation for personality based on the characteristics of the nervous
system and associated with the structure of a person’s body (constitution)
and metabolism (Balin and Il’ina, 2020).
648
Marina Anatoleyvna Kaluzhina, Vadim Victorovich Verstov, Yuri Alekseevich Bondarenko,
Tatiana Sergeevna Balugina y Alexander Ivanovich Natura
The eect of individual dierences on the cognitive processes of a witness during interrogation
Although research utilizes dierent criteria for distinguishing between
the types of temperament, the typology retains its four-member structure.
A sanguine person (strong, balanced, agile) is emotionally quick, easily
adapts to the changing life conditions, their main desire is a thirst for
pleasure. In a complex unexpected situation, they hold themselves together
without losing emotional tonus. This type has a high resistance to the
diculties of life, they are sociable and mobile, easily converge with new
people, and are not characterized by consistency in interaction. They can
quickly lose interest in an activity if it ceases to be entertaining.
This type of witness has a strong balanced nervous system, does not
react to weak inuences, is not vulnerable, and has balanced volitional and
communicative qualities. They are active in their activity when interested
and become bored when uninterested.
A choleric person (strong, unbalanced) is hardworking and ready to
react quickly, but it is dicult for them to “get along” with themselves. The
choleric nervous system is characterized by a predominance of excitation
over inhibition. Such a person has a lot of vitality but not enough self-
control, they can be ery and intemperate. When they proceed with a new
activity, they devote themselves to it passionately and with full power, but
the strength and energy last for a short time, power comes to an end, and
they end up in a decadent mood.
The nervous system of such witnesses is unbalanced, and cyclical moods
dominate. In their interactions with people, such a person is impatient,
shouty, aggressive, and short-tempered, which makes testimonies
excessively emotional.
A phlegmatic person (strong, balanced, inert) is calm, balanced, has
an increased capacity for work, “internally” leveled, but is “stick-in-the-
mud”, it is very dicult for them to abandon the established attitudes and
stereotypes, enter a new job, get out of the usual pace.
Such a witness rmly remembers everything they perceive but has
diculties if it is necessary to change the daily routine, work, and friends,
it is very hard for them to adapt to new conditions of life. They can resist
prolonged stimulation for a long time.
A melancholic person (weak) resists the inuence of strong stimuli
poorly, therefore, can often be passive and inhibited. Strong stressors and
stimuli can lead to disrupted behavior.
This type of witness is fearful, restless in behavioral acts, anxious,
their stamina is weak. A minor occasion can bring them to tears, they are
insecure, timid, lack energy, and have little social interaction.
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Aside from the characteristics of temperament, important aspects of
personality are cognitive processes and emotional qualities that aect the
activity and behavior of individuals in social and legal situations, especially
in situations of interrogation.
In an interrogation, a witness is the bearer of evidentiary information.
Obtaining this information is, however, complicated by the psychological
characteristics of a witness. Only the knowledge of these specics can
ensure the eectiveness of investigative action by obtaining complete and
objectively new data.
During witness interrogation, it is necessary to pay attention to the
factors that aect the formation of personal information (e.g., attention
span, concentration, stability of attention). This work is often overlooked
by young investigators, but it contributes to the fastest diagnosis of the
individual characteristics of a witness and allows for the adjustment of the
issues under discussion.
Attention is often dened as the focus and concentration of a person’s
consciousness on a particular object. The object of attention can be anything:
the questions asked by the investigator, actions, thoughts, feelings, and
even the inner world of the witness.
Attention is also understood as the identication or selection of relevant
and personally signicant signals, orientation, and concentration of
consciousness on certain objects of activity with distraction from the rest.
Just as memory, attention belongs to “cross-cutting” mental processes as it
is present at all levels of the mental organization (Enikeev, 1996).
At the same time, attention is a cognitive process that ensures the
organization of the incoming information based on the priority of objectives
faced by the subject.
Some researchers tend to equate attention with the orienting activity
(Gippenreiter, 2001; Granovskaia, 1997). Others (Enikeev, 1996; Leonov,
2018; Prohorov, 2020) consider attention to be an independent form of
mental activity, specically a psychological form of control.
An objectively immeasurable quantitative category is the concentration
of attention, that is, the degree of its focus. Concentrated attention is directed
to one object (type of activity) and does not extend to others. Witnesses
with a high degree of concentration are the most preferable since focusing
on a single object for a long period of time contributes to remembering the
details of an event or phenomenon.
It is worth noting that the concentration (focus) of attention on a certain
object entails distraction from everything beside it, as concentration is a
prerequisite for comprehending and capturing the information coming into
the brain making the reection clear and distinct.
650
Marina Anatoleyvna Kaluzhina, Vadim Victorovich Verstov, Yuri Alekseevich Bondarenko,
Tatiana Sergeevna Balugina y Alexander Ivanovich Natura
The eect of individual dierences on the cognitive processes of a witness during interrogation
Focused attention is characterized by high intensity, which is necessary
to perform important activities. Among witnesses, good characteristics of
concentration are demonstrated by the phlegmatic and sanguine types.
Although attention presents a cognitive process providing the
systematization of the incoming information depending on the priority of
the objectives faced by a person, it is not an independent mental function.
It cannot be identied in a witness as it presents a special form of human
mental activity incorporated in all types of mental processes (memory,
imagination, representation). At the same time, attention is a vital condition
for high-quality and long-term activity, such as an interrogation.
The supports the need to have knowledge of and focus one’s professional
attention on the cognitive process of attention, especially regarding the
eect of temperament on a person’s attention in the course of witness
interrogation.
For example, when interrogating a melancholic, it is necessary to
account for the individual properties of their nervous system. They may
be frightened by new surroundings and easily fatigued, they have little
capacity for work, due to which their attention concentration decreases.
Here, concentration becomes one of the basic properties of attention and
determines the level of performance, which is especially important in an
interrogation due to the established time limit.
To achieve the goal of the study, psychological testing of the group
of subjects was conducted before and after the simulated interrogation
situation. The sample of the study comprises 30 male and female subjects
at the average age of 21.6 years old and ranging from 20 to 45 years old.
Situational modeling allowed assessing the subjects’ attention span
before the simulated “witness interrogation situation” and after it. In
turn, this approach provided the opportunity to compare and contrast the
characteristics of the subjects’ cognitive processes with their temperamental
characteristics.
The simulated interrogation situation lasted no longer than three hours
for each study participant.
1. Methods
The psychodiagnostic assessment of the subjects using the Eysenck
Personality Inventory (EPI) provides data on the degree of manifestation of
temperamental characteristics (extraversion and neuroticism) and sincerity
(the lie scale) in them, as well as their overall type of temperament. These
results are presented in Table 1 (Mironova, 2005).
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Table 1. Results of Eysenck Personality Inventory*
Type of temperament
Scale melancholic choleric phlegmatic sanguine
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Extraversion/
introversion 10.5 0.57 16.4 2.5 10.6 1.5 15 2
Neuroticism 17 1.7 17.4 2.7 10 1 8.8 2.1
Sincerity 3.5 0.5 4 1.4 3.3 0.5 4.4 1.2
* compiled by the authors
The data in Table 1 show that the “melancholic” and “phlegmatic”
subjects were sincere when tested, while the “choleric” and “sanguine”
groups show an excess on the sincerity scale, that is, the subjects could be
orientated toward social approval and social desirability when answering
the test questions (Figure 2).
After that, the subjects were divided into groups according to the type of
temperament using Eysenk’s “circle”.
Figure 1. Distribution of the types of temperament (in %)*
*Compiled by the authors
652
Marina Anatoleyvna Kaluzhina, Vadim Victorovich Verstov, Yuri Alekseevich Bondarenko,
Tatiana Sergeevna Balugina y Alexander Ivanovich Natura
The eect of individual dierences on the cognitive processes of a witness during interrogation
Figure 1 demonstrates that the distribution of the sample by the types
of temperament is uneven: choleric people make up 21% of the sample
(high extraversion and neuroticism), the largest group is the sanguine, 47%
of the sample (high extroversion and low neuroticism), 15% of subjects
are phlegmatic (high introversion and low neuroticism), and 18% are
melancholic (high introversion and high neuroticism) (Figure 2).
Here we have to note that this distribution by the types of temperament
cannot be considered precise as the distinction between the low and high
scores does not take average scores into account. Thus, the dierence in
just one point can lead to assignment to dierent types of temperament.
In this regard, we can once again note that it is more accurate to consider
the expression of temperamental characteristics as a characteristic of
temperament and not the type of temperament per se.
In addition, people with a strongly pronounced type of temperament
are rarely found, most personalities are characterized by an intricate
intertwining of temperament types. In unusual situations, such as an
interrogation, the characteristic traits of one type of temperament manifest
fully and vividly, for example, the choleric tendency to violent and aective
response to a stressful situation.
Figure 2. Distribution of the types of temperament (scales)*
* Compiled by the authors
Further on, we deployed Schulte tables to assess the witnesses’ focus
of attention. The tables are used to test people of various age groups to
determine the subjects’ information perception rate depending on the type
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Vol. 39 Nº 71 (2021): 643-659
of their temperament before and after the interrogation situation. Schulte
tables are square tables of 5 columns and 5 rows lled with numbers from 1
to 25 placed in a random order, the study participants were presented with
ve Schulte tables in two sessions (before and after the interrogation).
Figure 3. Distribution based on the Schulte Table results
(pre-interrogation)*
* Compiled by the authors
The results of the study (see Figures 3 and 4) show that the group of
melancholics is more prone to lower attention focus, poor ability to switch
attention, and low stability of attention (before and after the situation of
interrogation). Naturally, this will make it signicantly more dicult to
establish contact and dialogue in an interrogation situation with a witness
of a melancholic temperament type (Vedernikov, 1968).
Table 2. Schulte Table results (pre-interrogation)*
Schulte Table (pre-interrogation), in seconds
1 2 3 4 5
melancholic 41.54 39.99 32.47 35.58 26.5
choleric 30.318 29.44 23.854 21.964 24.52
phlegmatic 22.416 20.51 18.916 22.76 19.53
sanguine 32.140 29.005 25.99 24.345 22.74
* compiled by the authors
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Marina Anatoleyvna Kaluzhina, Vadim Victorovich Verstov, Yuri Alekseevich Bondarenko,
Tatiana Sergeevna Balugina y Alexander Ivanovich Natura
The eect of individual dierences on the cognitive processes of a witness during interrogation
The phlegmatic group demonstrates stable results both pre- and post-
interrogation: the distribution and switchability of attention is less mobile,
even though this type is “stick-in-the-mud” and needs a longer adaptation
to the situation of interrogation due to the long period of time required for
involvement in the dialogue.
In the most populous group of the sample, the sanguine and choleric
subjects, the distribution, switchability, and attention and mobile. When
interrogating choleric and sanguine witnesses, an investigator can proceed
from knowing that the pace, rhythm, and intensity of the interrogation
may be high, but not so long with a choleric, the introductory stage of the
interrogation and the long establishment of contact may be reduced to a
minimum, and the transition from one topic to another may be performed
without lengthy preliminary preparation.
Table 3. Schulte Table results (post-interrogation)*
Schulte Table (post-interrogation), in seconds
1 2 3 4 5
melancholic 26.38 27.375 24.8575 28.105 28.97
choleric 22.806 22.414 21.146 23.458 21.42
phlegmatic 18.06 18.457 17.73 20.47 19.83
sanguine 22.897 21.942 22.074 22.25 21.56
* compiled by the authors
Thus, determining the temperament of the person under interrogation
is important when considering how the investigator needs to structure
their interrogation tactics. Determining the temperament and attention
concentration via observation, conversation, and familiarization with
the open prole in social media allows obtaining necessary and valuable
information on the psychological state of the person involved in a criminal
situation, as well as their individual characteristics now. This constitutes
the psychological essence of witness interrogation (Ratinov, 1967).
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Vol. 39 Nº 71 (2021): 643-659
Figure 4. Distribution based on the Schulte Table results
(post-interrogation)*
* Compiled by the authors
2. Results
Thus, when questioning choleric and sanguine people (a strong and
mobile type of nervous system), an investigator can proceed from knowing
that the pace, rhythm, and intensity of the interrogation may be high, but
not so long with a choleric, the introductory stage of the interrogation and
the long establishment of contact may be reduced to a minimum, and the
transition from one topic to another may be performed without lengthy
preliminary preparation.
In the situation of interrogation with this type of witness, the focus on
social desirability of their actions induces sanguine and, to a greater extent,
choleric people to give false testimony without any intentional motivation
behind the reported information. It is necessary to account for this fact
when preparing for an interrogation, develop a list of test questions, and
prepare evidence for presentation.
When questioning phlegmatic people (a strong and stable but less mobile
type of nervous system), it should be borne in mind that this type is “stick-
in-the-mud” and needs a longer adaptation to the situation of interrogation
due to the long period of time required for involvement in the dialogue.
Therefore, the dynamics of the interrogation are characterized by a large
introductory part and the stage of establishing contact and a slow transition
from one episode to another, the pace of the conversation is relatively slow.
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Marina Anatoleyvna Kaluzhina, Vadim Victorovich Verstov, Yuri Alekseevich Bondarenko,
Tatiana Sergeevna Balugina y Alexander Ivanovich Natura
The eect of individual dierences on the cognitive processes of a witness during interrogation
Convinced of their mission as a witness, a phlegmatic person is very
valuable because of their accuracy of perception and ability to engage in
questioning for long periods of time without cognitive decline.
When interrogating melancholic witnesses (a weak type of nervous
system), it is necessary to account for their tendency to intense deceleration
in dicult life situations (such as an interrogation). This type of witness
requires a special approach, as high levels of tension can lead to lethargy,
apathy, and anxiety and make it dicult to establish contact and dialogue
in an interrogation (Vedernikov, 1968).
Therefore, the main task of an investigator is to establish contact with
them on a topic close to the subject of the interrogation. This allows a relatively
smooth transition to communication without crossing the subjective level
of stress of such a witness beyond which they become objectively unable
to give accurate and truthful testimony due to a signicant decrease in
cognitive abilities.
3. Discussion
Our ndings regarding the patterns of cognitive ability in people of
dierent temperaments suggest the need for allocating interrogation
techniques suitable for each temperament. This approach is consistent with
the results obtained in a dierent work on the state of persons undergoing
interrogation.
It is found that it is most advantageous for the interrogator not to
be overzealous in obtaining testimony and provide the person under
interrogation with feedback in which hostile tactics toward them are
minimized (Sambrano et al., 2021).
It should be noted that the results of our study are not universal as
they cannot be applied to persons with mental illnesses or suering from
memory or cognitive disorders. In this regard, it is worth noting the research
that determines the limits of interrogation techniques traditionally used in
police practice and obtaining evidence (Manzanero and Palomo, 2020).
In addition, such traditional interrogation techniques should be used with
caution in the interrogation of persons possessing knowledge of the tactics
of operative investigative measures (Khalymon et al., 2020).
Ultimately, the interrogator creates for themselves an information model
of the prognosed object (Kaluzhina et al., 2019), in our case, the witness,
and implements the pre-planned program of obtaining testimony from
them. Therefore, a psychological approach to the analysis of personality,
the temperament, and, accordingly, their eect on the cognitive abilities
of a witness serves as a basic criterion for a positive outcome of witness
interrogation.
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The results of this work should be used in conjunction with other
techniques for both planning and conducting the interrogation. The most
relevant additional interview preparation techniques should include the
analysis of the non-verbal reactions of the interrogated based on videos
from social media or exploratory interviewing. It should also be noted
that additional tools ensuring successful interrogation have their own
limitations on their eectiveness (Denault et al., 2020).
Conclusion
It is found that a specic structure of the interrogation plan emerges
in regard to each type of temperament. This structure is determined
by the speed of mental reactions and the opportunity to conduct long
interrogations without cognitive decline on the part of witnesses.
The study demonstrates how the temperament and cognitive abilities
of witnesses inuence the eectiveness of interrogation techniques before
and after the interrogation. The time interval is shown to largely change
the eectiveness of perception of the posed questions depending on the
temperament of the witness.
The underlying features of this state of aairs lie in the level of
neuroticism and the manifestation of introversion and extraversion.
Therefore, at the initial stage of the interrogation, the tactics of gathering
information and assisting in recalling what has been forgotten should
prevail over attempts to obtain the information sought from the witness.
Depending on the witness’s temperament, the tactics for their interrogation
are selected accounting for the patterns of their cognitive abilities.
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