Instituto de Estudios Políticos y Derecho Público "Dr. Humberto J. La Roche"
de la Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas de la Universidad del Zulia
Maracaibo, Venezuela
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Vol. 39, Nº 71 (2021), 822-832
IEPDP-Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas - LUZ
Recibido el 22/09/2021 Aceptado el 22/11/2021
The transition of insurgent-guerrilla
movements to radical terrorist methods of
struggle: retrospective features
DOI: https://doi.org/10.46398/cuestpol.3971.50
Andrey Ivanovich Baksheev *
Sergey Alekseevich Butorov **
Evgeniya Alekseevna Kurenkova ***
Aleksey Nikolayevich Kuraev ****
Andrey Vyacheslavovich Rybakov *****
Abstract
The realities of modern reality indicate that there are a
signicant number of unjustied attempts to resolve controversial
issues based on the use of force. The article shows the evolutionary
processes of the transition of insurgent-guerrilla movements to
radical terrorist methods of struggle in the period of 1991-2001
and reveals the reasons for this process. The article analyzes the denition
of “international terrorism” in the modern sense, analyzes the characteristic
features of international terrorism of the 1990s, the reasons for its spread,
new forms of terrorist activity. The following methods were used in the study
of the chosen topic: historical-genetic, comparative-historical; problem-
chronological, the method of historical modeling. Authors conclude, there
is no doubt that all the insurgent-guerilla movements, without exception,
pursued their own goals. The most eective way to achieve them at the
turn of the century turned out to be precisely terrorist attacks, which, with
all the strength of state structures, were not possible to fend o. Thus,
terrorism has become a strong weapon in the hands of weak players in the
international arena.
Keywords: radicalism; terrorism; civil war; guerrilla war; multipolar
world.
* Professor V.F. Voino-Yasenetsky Krasnoyarsk State Medical University, Krasnoyarsk, Russia. ORCID
ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7607-731X
** Russian State University of Tourism and Service, Cherkizovo, Moscow region, Russia. ORCID ID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8554-6472
*** Moscow Region State University, Mytischi, Moscow region, Russia. ORCID ID: https://orcid.
org/0000-0001-6178-2681
**** K.G. Razumovsky Moscow State University of Technologies and Management (First Cossack
University), Moscow, Russia. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7771-3701
***** Moscow Aviation Institute, Moscow, Russia. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4909-199X
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CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 39 Nº 71 (2021): 824-834
La transición de los movimientos insurgentes-
guerrilleros a métodos de lucha terroristas radicales:
características retrospectivas
Resumen
Las realidades modernas indican que hay un número signicativo de
intentos injusticados de resolver cuestiones controvertidas basadas
en el uso de la fuerza. El artículo muestra los procesos evolutivos de la
transición de los movimientos insurgentes-guerrilleros a métodos de
lucha terroristas radicales en el período de 1991-2001 y, al mismo tiempo,
revela las razones de este proceso. El artículo analiza la denición de
«terrorismo internacional» en el sentido moderno; estudio los rasgos
característicos del terrorismo internacional de la década de 1990, las
razones de su propagación y las nuevas formas de actividad terrorista. En
el estudio del tema elegido se utilizaron los siguientes métodos: histórico-
genético, comparativo-histórico; problema-cronológico y el método de
modelado histórico. Los autores concluyen que no hay duda de que todos
los movimientos insurgentes-guerrilleros, sin excepción, persiguieron sus
propios objetivos. La forma más efectiva de lograrlos a principios de siglo
resultó ser precisamente los ataques terroristas, que, con toda la fuerza
de las estructuras estatales, no fueron posibles de evitarse. Por lo tanto, el
terrorismo se ha convertido en un arma fuerte en manos de actores débiles
en la arena internacional.
Palabras clave: radicalismo; terrorismo; guerra civil; guerra de
guerrillas; mundo multipolar.
Introduction
The modern world continues to live under the pressure of the use of
military means in various regions of the world, without which the current
post-industrial civilization cannot balance political existence. Battles
sometimes break out that are close in intensity to military ones even in the
seemingly peaceful politics of many countries.
People often do not feel how erce political battles imperceptibly draw
them into large-scale bloodshed in fratricidal conicts. We observe armed
forms of confrontation today in dierent regions of the world (Afghanistan,
Syria, Mali, Nigeria, Libya, Ethiopia), one of the manifestations of which
are armed conicts in various forms, ranging from minor clashes of
paramilitary formations and ending with fairly large-scale hostilities
covering the signicant territory. As a rule, the causes of these conicts are
the struggle for power within the country, which makes their consequences
824
Andrey Ivanovich Baksheev, Sergey Alekseevich Butorov, Evgeniya Alekseevna Kurenkova,
Aleksey Nikolayevich Kuraev y Andrey Vyacheslavovich Rybakov
The transition of insurgent-guerrilla movements to radical terrorist methods of struggle:
retrospective features
for the population more tangible. In our opinion, local military conicts
today constitute one of the main threats to both national and international
security.
According to researchers (Fearon and Laitin, 2003), guerrilla wars
(insurgent guerrilla warfare and urban guerrilla warfare) are one of
the main forms of civil war, which involves the use of non-conventional
strategy methods and allows making long-term campaigns. Carles Boix
(2010) emphasizes that such a phenomenon as guerillas is characteristic of
civil wars. Moreover, S. Kalyanaraman (2003) believes that the growth in
the number of guerillas in some wars suggests that the latter can claim to
become an army. According to researchers (Centeno and Homan, 2003),
insurgent-guerrilla movements occur most often in the poorest countries,
rejecting the prospects for the economic and social development of the
latter.
The situation with guerrilla movements during the large-scale civil war
in Russia in 1918-1922 was no exception. Moreover, the insurgent-guerrilla
movements acted both on the side of the Bolsheviks who came to power and
fought against the Soviet government.
Moreover, the guerrilla war of the period of the civil war in Russia was
distinguished by its scale. In the summer of 1919, the «red guerrillas» of the
Altai province, who were on the side of the Soviet government, united in the
West Siberian Peasant Red Army, numbering about 25 thousand people.
In total, the guerilla movement in Siberia numbered about 100 thousand
guerillas, who even before the approach of the Red Army liberated vast
areas from the White Guards.
In our opinion, the radical left movements received a new development
at the end of the twentieth century. The situation in the world changed
dramatically in the early 1990s. The Soviet Union collapsed, and several
new states emerged, the traditional religion of which was Islam. The
Islamic Republic of Iran continued to be in international isolation, however,
without abandoning the «export of the Islamic revolution» to neighboring
countries. Libya and Iraq are under international sanctions. Pakistan, on
the territory of which the Afghan Mujahideen were located, was forced to
intensify its policy towards neighboring Afghanistan, because of which the
Najibula regime fell in 1992, and former guerrillas or terrorists came to
power.
There were many crises points around the world (Colombia, Mexico,
Sri Lanka), where insurgents or terrorists from various organizations were
ghting for national liberation, the legal separation of certain territories, or
for political power (Smith, 2003). Such zones also appeared on the territory
of the former USSR, especially in areas where Muslims mostly lived.
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De facto, the only superpower in the world was the United States, but
Washington’s policy was ambiguously perceived by most international
actors. All this and many other factors not only did not lead to the
disappearance of the terrorist threat but on the contrary – to its increase
(Smith, 2003). In addition, we should add radical dierences between the
standard of living in the United States and Western European countries
and other countries of the world. Thus, the ground for the development of
the international terrorist threat has only increased and today terrorism
has acquired an international nature (citizens of dierent states could
be members of terrorist organizations), an international essence (the
commission of terrorist attacks was not limited to a particular country, but
extended to one or several other states) and the main goal that distinguishes
this phenomenon from other forms of struggle is to cause fear among people
from heads of state to ordinary residents.
These factors determine the urgency of the problem of studying the
causes and peculiarities of the transition of insurgent-guerilla movements
to radical terrorist methods of struggle.
The purpose of the study is to analyze the causes and peculiarities of the
transition of insurgent-guerilla movements to radical terrorist methods of
struggle.
1. Methods
The historical and genetic method allowed consistently revealing
the origins and development of terrorist forms of the armed struggle of
insurgent-guerilla movements to radical terrorist methods of struggle.
Using the comparative-historical method, the general and special features
of the transition of insurgent-guerilla movements to radical terrorist
methods of struggle were shown. Using the problem-chronological method,
the corresponding problems that had been existing in the world community
during the specied chronological period were identied. The method of
historical modeling, or the method of reconstruction, was embodied in the
analysis of the reasons for the transition of insurgent-guerilla movements
to radical terrorist methods of struggle.
The chronological framework of the study – 1991-2001 – is since it was
in the 1990s that the term «international terrorism» received its usual
understanding (the understanding itself, but not the denition). If the
term «international terrorism» was used with an ideological meaning in
the previous period (during the cold war), now it has acquired its practical
meaning.
826
Andrey Ivanovich Baksheev, Sergey Alekseevich Butorov, Evgeniya Alekseevna Kurenkova,
Aleksey Nikolayevich Kuraev y Andrey Vyacheslavovich Rybakov
The transition of insurgent-guerrilla movements to radical terrorist methods of struggle:
retrospective features
2. Results
The analysis of literary sources has shown that terrorism can be
manifested both by specic actions directed against specic representatives
of another state, in fact, up to their physical destruction, and by actions of
a military-populist nature.
An example of a concrete manifestation of international terrorism
in the 1990s was the murder by suicide bombers on May 21, 1991, of the
Prime Minister of India and the leader of the country’s largest Indian
National Congress Party, Rajiv Gandhi. None of the organizations claimed
responsibility for this action. Much later, the leadership of the insurgent
organization Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) in Sri Lanka
stated that the murder of Rajiv Gandhi was the work of their supporters
(Sarvananthan, 2018).
Thus, a terrorist or insurgent organization carried out an act of political
murder of the leader of a State on the territory of which it did not conduct
its struggle. The consequences of this terrorist attack were benecial for
the LTTE – at the end of the year, Indian troops who helped the Sri Lankan
government in the ght against Tamil rebels left the country (Bruevich et
al., 2019; Sarvananthan, 2018).
In our opinion, an interesting example of a military-populist action
was the uprising of the so-called Zapatista Army of National Liberation
in the Mexican state of Chiapas in 1994-1995. This organization, which
acted as an insurgent-guerilla formation, but its actions intimidated
US citizens on the territory of Mexico, was headed not by an Indian (the
Indians were ghters of this army) and not by a Mexican, but most likely
by a very educated European who became known to the world under the
name of Subcomandante Marcos (Barmeyer, 2003). Moreover, having
unexpectedly started the ght, the subordinates of Subcomandante Marcos
also unexpectedly stopped it, without winning or losing. Therewith,
this army retained all its military structures, which in turn became an
indicator of the eectiveness of the so-called latent terrorism, which means
intimidation, not by specic terrorist actions, but only by a factor of its
existence (Barmeyer, 2003; Zelenkov et al., 2021a, 2021b).
We have concluded that terrorism as a phenomenon, including an
international one, has changed dramatically since the previous historical
era. In the 1990s, due to several objective reasons, almost all organizations
that fought for their interests with the help of weapons turned out to be
subjects of international relations in a multipolar world.
This became possible since a kind of regional political vacuum arose
because of the collapse of the socialist system, as well as the desire of some
countries for a more peaceful policy (for example, India) (Bapat, 2007).
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Armed non-governmental organizations took advantage of it in their
struggle. Solely because of this, the Tamil insurgent organization Liberation
Tigers of Tamil Eelam was not only able to dramatically increase its
potential in the new geopolitical conditions but also to switch to completely
new forms of terrorist struggle – on the territory of India and to maritime
terrorism. The latter has become a completely new threat, primarily for the
South Asian region (Sinai, 2005).
Another characteristic feature of international terrorism in the 1990s
was its activation and radicalization. Moreover, the trend here was twofold.
On the one hand, various insurgent-guerrilla organizations, especially
in Latin America and Asia, were turning to terrorist forms of struggle
(Messelken, 2005). On the other hand, existing terrorist organizations have
begun to reorient their activities to the international or even global level.
Meanwhile, new organizations began to appear, which were interpreted
as terroristic ones with an international orientation. This is against the
background of at least the legal refusal of such well-known organizations as
the Irish Republican Army and the Palestine Liberation Organization from
the terrorist struggle in the early 1990s (Galam, 2003).
Indeed, in Latin America in the early 1990s, everything indicated that
Marxist guerrilla groups, nding themselves without material assistance
from outside, seeing the collapse of communist ideology and losing their
strategic positions due to the eective counteraction of government forces
to the rebels, should at best have gone to political negotiations with the
government, as happened in 1990-1991 in El Salvador (Consalvi, 2010).
At the end of the 90s, the Colombian insurgents not only did not lay
down their weapons but on the contrary switched to new, diverse, including
terroristic forms of struggle. As a result, the period of some passivity in 1991-
1997 was replaced by a sharp oensive of Colombian Marxist insurgents
on the positions of the government and government troops in 1998-2002.
Thereby, two Colombians emerged – ocial and controlled by Marxists
(ORTIZ, 2002). Moreover, the terrorist tactics of the guerrillas of Colombia
turned out to be large-scale and eective. As a result, the situation in 1998-
2002 was characterized by a new phenomenon – the terrorist guerrilla
(Valenzuela, 2018).
In Peru, Marxist insurgents from the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary
Movement, who in 1992 suered a military defeat together with their
colleagues from Sendero Luminoso, were forced to go deep underground.
Having partially restored their potential, the Amaru followers did not return
to Guerilla but switched purely to terrorist measures (Fumerton, 2018).
On December 17, 1996, 14 ghters of the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary
Movement broke into the residence of the Japanese ambassador in Lima,
where a gala dinner was organized in honor of the birthday of the Japanese
828
Andrey Ivanovich Baksheev, Sergey Alekseevich Butorov, Evgeniya Alekseevna Kurenkova,
Aleksey Nikolayevich Kuraev y Andrey Vyacheslavovich Rybakov
The transition of insurgent-guerrilla movements to radical terrorist methods of struggle:
retrospective features
Emperor Akihito. Immediately, more than 500 guests and members of the
embassy were taken hostage. The terrorist insurgents demanded the release
of more than 400 of their associates from prison. However, this could lead
to the fact that all the eorts of the government of Peruvian President
Alberto Fujimori to ght left-wing insurgents would be in vain. That is why
the international crisis had to be solved radically. On April 23, 1997, special
forces units of the Peruvian army stormed the Japanese Embassy in Lima.
The terrorists were killed, but some of the hostages also died (Tolmacheva
et al., 2018; Zirakzadeh, 2002).
An active process of transferring the terrorist activity of existing non-
governmental organizations to the international level began in 1991-
2001. Moreover, this phenomenon remains unclear until now, since the
actual initiators of this process are almost unknown. Most likely, the rst
manifestation can be considered the explosion of the Israeli embassy in
Buenos Aires on March 17, 1992. Then 29 people were killed, and about
250 were seriously injured. According to the rst versions, the initiators of
this terrorist attack could be either «Nazi groups» or «Marxist insurgents».
A specially created commission to investigate this terrorist attack did not
come to a consensus. However, the President of Argentina, Carlos Menem,
blamed the «Islamic radicals» for this terrorist attack (Zirakzadeh, 2002).
That is why we concluded that international terrorism has received
an «Islamic» coloring. In our opinion, the reason for such a widespread
opinion, even among scholars, is several factors.
Firstly, the authors of almost all large-scale terrorist acts are still
unknown. They are unknown because they have not been captured by the
law enforcement agencies of the countries where the terrorist attacks were
committed. Namely, this does not give grounds for any accusations.
Secondly, the radicalization of the Islamic world took place. Thus,
almost all the countries of North Africa were threatened by Islamic radical
organizations (Hinds, 2013). In Algeria, since 1992, Islamic radicals have
launched a civil war. In Egypt, it was terrorists from radical Islamic groups
who organized large-scale terrorist attacks against foreigners several times
(the explosion of a bus with German tourists in Sharm el-Sheikh in 1997,
the assassination attempt on Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak in Sudan
in 1998). All this has led to the fact that it was Egypt that began to use
extremely radical methods to ght against Islamic radicals and international
terrorism. These measures proved to be very eective, but they did not nd
understanding among the politicians of the states of the region (Hinds,
2013).
Thirdly, the consequences of the Afghan war of 1979-1989 manifested
themselves. In its course, the United States was forced to rely on non-
standard measures of struggle in the confrontation with the USSR for
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Afghanistan. These measures were taken by mercenaries from Arab or
Islamic countries who fought against the Soviet troops on the side of the
guerrillas-mujahideen.
Each of them received a salary of at least 1,500 USD dollars per month
and therefore was interested in this source of prot. That is why such
mercenaries had been ghting for years (Grau, 2018). However, after
1992, when the Taliban Mujahideen seized power in Afghanistan, the war
theoretically ended. Due to this, the former «ghters for the faith» began
to return to their countries, where they could not integrate into peaceful
life and turned out to be a destabilizing factor in the internal life of their
countries, as they joined the ranks of radical anti-government organizations
(Guest, 2010).
Pakistan has had a particularly dicult time in this regard. On the
one hand, this country was an outpost of the struggle against the USSR in
Afghanistan, since the camps of the Afghan mujahideen were located on the
territory of the Islamic Republic, where Arab mercenaries were trained. On
the other hand, a signicant number of radical-minded people and well-
armed ones have appeared in the country (according to experts, more than
1 million Kalashnikov assault ries are in the hands of radicals in Pakistan
– twice as many as in the entire Pakistani army) (Guest, 2010).
This is what led to the fact that Pakistani society did not follow the path
of Islamic radicalization. In this case, the only measure, according to the
researchers (Findley and Young, 2012), was the attempt of the Pakistani
government not so much to ght the radicals but to send them out of the
country. As a result, international terrorism was de facto provided with
personnel.
Another signicant factor in the transition of insurgent-guerilla
movements to radical terrorist methods of struggle was the fact that
terrorism turned out to be nancially accessible to many. Thus, according to
researchers (Carter, 2016), terrorist acts do not require large funds and cost
an average of 10-30 thousand dollars. Moreover, many of the previously
existing insurgent-guerrilla movements accumulated signicant nances,
for example, from drug tracking, obtaining ransom for hostage-taking,
and the like (Carter, 2016; Gurinovich and Petrykina, 2021).
Thus, there were political, ideological, personnel, and material
conditions for the reformatting of insurgent-guerrilla movements into
international terrorist organizations. It should be noted that the main
activity of international terrorist groups has become the struggle against
any hegemony, and in the case of Islamic organizations, the creation of
a hypothetical Islamic state. However, this idea turned out to be awed
precisely because Muslims themselves are dierent and only the most
radical of them could support it. In addition, the idea of «political Islam»
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Andrey Ivanovich Baksheev, Sergey Alekseevich Butorov, Evgeniya Alekseevna Kurenkova,
Aleksey Nikolayevich Kuraev y Andrey Vyacheslavovich Rybakov
The transition of insurgent-guerrilla movements to radical terrorist methods of struggle:
retrospective features
– that is, the spread of the inuence of the Islamic religion in the world –
turned out to be unfavorable in the West, which once again equated even
moderate Islamists with terrorists.
Conclusion
Thus, terrorism as a social phenomenon has turned into an international
problem in the conditions of the world’s transition from bipolar to
multipolar. This was made possible due to the virtually imperial policy on
the part of the United States, the radicalization of societies in countries,
primarily Asia and Latin America, the accumulation of signicant material
resources among some of the insurgent-guerilla movements, and, most
importantly, the emergence of an international political situation in which
terrorist organizations were able to ll the international vacuum that arose
because of the end of the cold war.
The extraordinary eectiveness of the terrorist attacks was revealed very
quickly, which in turn prompted the terrorists to spread their actions to an
almost global level. This, in turn, prompted the rapprochement and even the
unication of terrorist organizations into single international structures.
However, the idea of creating a Worldwide caliphate itself turned out to be
very abstract, and if so, it became a psychological weapon of international
terrorism, which, if not frightened the governments of the leading countries
of the world, then forced them to take the terrorist threat seriously.
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Esta revista fue editada en formato digital y publicada
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Vol.39 Nº 71
