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de la Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas de la Universidad del Zulia
Maracaibo, Venezuela
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Vol. 41, Nº 78 (2023), 708-722
IEPDP-Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas y Políticas - LUZ
Recibido el 05/06/23 Aceptado el 12/08/23
Legal Aspects of the authoritarian
regime in Latin America
DOI: https://doi.org/10.46398/cuestpol.4178.48
Oleksandr Oleksandrovych Skrypniuk *
Oleksandr Vasylovych Skrypniuk
2
**
Oksana Vasylivna Burlak
3
***
Nina Oleksandrivna Doroshchuk
4
****
Olena Viktorivna Popova
5
*****
Abstract
The purpose of the article was to study the legal aspects of
the authoritarian regime in some Latin American countries. The
research methodology included the use of general and special
scientic methods of knowledge, such as: dialectic, historical-legal,
formal-logical, hermeneutics, generalization and comparison. It
should be pointed out that the results of the research identied
four Latin American countries with authoritarian regimes
(El Salvador, Cuba, Nicaragua and Venezuela). The legal aspects of
the authoritarian regime of each selected country were considered. In
addition, dierent areas of analysis were covered and characterized in the
course of the work: (government, protection of human rights, freedom of
expression, legislation and prisoners’ rights). It was concluded that each of
these countries has common legal aspects of authoritarianism, including
the concentration of power in the hands of the president or government,
control of the judiciary and legislature, within the framework of dynamics
of corruption and systematic violations of human rights.
Keywords: authoritarianism; Latin America; legal aspects; political
regime; rule of law.
* Candidate of Juridical Sciences, Senior Researcher at the Koretsky Institute of State and Law of
National Academy of Science of Ukraine. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5620-7762
** Doctor of Juridical Sciences, Full Professor, Academician of the National Academy of Legal Sciences of
Ukraine, director of the Koretsky Institute of State and Law of National Academy of Science of Ukraine.
ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7052-3729
*** Candidate of Juridical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Constitutional, International
and Administrative Law оf the Educational and Scientic Law Institute of the Vasyl Stefanyk
Preparation National University. ОRCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6530-496X
**** Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor, Associate Professor of the Department of History
of the State and Law of the National Academy of Internal Aairs. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-
0002-7564-6055
***** PhD., in Law, Associate Professor of the Department Theory and History of the State and Law, National
University of Life and Environmental Scienсes of Ukraine. ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-
0249-6356
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CUESTIONES POLÍTICAS
Vol. 41 Nº 78 (2023): 708-722
Aspectos jurídicos del régimen autoritario
en América Latina
Resumen
El propósito del artículo fue estudiar los aspectos legales del régimen
autoritario en algunos países de América Latina. La metodología de
investigación incluyo el uso de métodos cientícos generales y especiales
de conocimiento, tales como: el: dialéctico, histórico-legal, formal-
lógico, hermenéutica, generalización y la comparación. Conviene precisar
que en los resultados de la investigación se identicaron cuatro países
latinoamericanos con régimen autoritario: (El Salvador, Cuba, Nicaragua y
Venezuela). Se consideraron los aspectos legales del régimen autoritario de
cada país seleccionado. Por lo demás, en el curso del trabajo se abarcaron
y caracterizaron distintas esferas de análisis: (gobierno, protección de los
derechos humanos, libertad de expresión, legislación y derechos de los
presos). Se concluyó que cada uno de estos países tiene aspectos legales
comunes del autoritarismo, incluida la concentración de poder en manos
del presidente o el gobierno, el control del poder judicial y legislativo, en
el marco de dinámicas de corrupción y violaciones sistemáticas de los
derechos humanos.
Palabras clave: autoritarismo; América Latina; aspectos legales;
régimen político; Estado de derecho.
Introduction
There has always been the struggle between good and evil, light and dark,
democracy and fascism, freedom of speech and dependence (Panchenko
et al., 2022). It is argued that unquestioning obedience to authority is
a fundamental factor in ensuring public order and security, as well as
preventing chaos and causing any harm to the state regime. Interestingly,
it is inherent only in supporters of authoritarianism – a political regime
characterized by centralized, but at the same time, concentrated power,
which is in the hands of the government or the president.
Authoritarianism has clear features that distinguish it from other
regimes: 1) limitation of political pluralism, legislative power and political
parties; 2) political legitimacy; 3) suppression of anti-regime activities; 4)
executive powers are not dened, which allows them to be abused, etc.
Thus, countries with an authoritarian regime are characterized by:
• the absence of free and competitive elections;
• the change of government over a long period of time and the
violation of civil rights and human freedoms.
710
Oleksandr Oleksandrovych Skrypniuk, Oleksandr Vasylovych Skrypniuk, Oksana Vasylivna
Burlak, Nina Oleksandrivna Doroshchuk y Olena Viktorivna Popova
Legal Aspects of the authoritarian regime in Latin America
A vivid example of the neglect of democratic values and other legal
elements are the countries of Latin America – El Salvador, Cuba, Nicaragua
and Venezuela, which have conrmed signs of authoritarian rule. A few
more – Guatemala, Bolivia, Haiti, Honduras (countries of Latin America
and the Caribbean) have hybrid authoritarian-democratic regimes
(Ramírez, 2022). This indicates that the number of authoritarian regimes
in the region is growing, so the topic we have chosen is quite relevant for
its study.
The study of the legal regime of the Latin America countries allows on the
other hand to look at the interests of ruling elites, which are accompanied
by anti-legal methods of governance: corruption, breach of human rights,
restriction of freedom of speech, falsication of elections, concentration of
power in the hands of the president, etc. Therefore, we consider it necessary
to examine the legal aspects of the authoritarian regime prevailing in El
Salvador, Cuba, Nicaragua and Venezuela in detail, which is the aim of our
research.
1. Methodology
The methodological basis for the research is the complex use of principles
and means of philosophical, general scientic and theoretical and legal
approaches, as it is it is necessary to provide quality methodological support
(Kharytonov et al., 2021). The authors proceed from the unity of socio and
legal and epistemological analysis, objectivity, historicism, concreteness.
• Systemic method helped to allocate Latin America countries with
authoritarian regime.
• Structural and functional method made it possible to identify the
features of authoritarian regime, as well as legal aspects of the
authoritarian regime of the selected countries.
• Comparative and legal method was used to compare the process
of authoritarian dynamics in the least democratic Latin America
States.
• Historical and analytical, as well as retrospective methods
were applied to investigate the development of authoritarian
characteristics in the mode of government in the named counties.
• Formal and legal method was helpful when dening the legal nature
of the state regime in the selected countries and in the scientic
processing of legal materials.
• Summarization method was used to determine general legal aspects
of authoritarianism.
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2. Literature Review
In the process of preparation, we got acquainted with many fundamental
works devoted to this topic, which are of great scientic interest.
Ronald Chacín Fuenmayor in his study “The new Latin American
authoritarianism: A challenge for democracy and human rights (analysis
of the Venezuelan case)” (2019), using theoretical and political approach,
focuses on the problem of authoritarianism in Venezuela. The author
also emphasizes that the country is characterized by violations of values,
principles, constitutional and fundamental human rights.
Botero’s work entitled “The Rule of Law in Latin America: From
Constitutionalism to Political Uncertainty” (2019) is quite interesting
in this aspect. The author thoroughly characterized the rule of law in the
region and the problems that arise in the way of compliance: regression
of democracy, constitutional promises, inability of countries to control
their territory, violence, the lack of independence of the judicial system,
corruption, hyper-presidency and inequality [3].
The study by Fuenmayor and Orozco “Conict between Democracy and
Authoritarianism in Latin America: The Role of the Judiciary” (2019) is also
noteworthy. The scholars examine the crisis of democracy in the countries
of Latin America – Venezuela, Bolivia and Nicaragua, and also describe
how the government exercises control over the judiciary and with its help
consolidates authoritarianism in the territory.
Rodríguez-Pinzón and Rodrigues (2020) demonstrate that the violent
actions of the governments of certain Latin American countries are a way to
destroy the rule of law. In their work “Mano dura” and Democracy in Latin
America: Public Security, Violence and Rule of Law”, the authors analyze
the experience of four countries – Brazil, Mexico, Colombia and Guatemala
through the prism of “violent pluralism”.
López and Quevedo Pereyra (2021) point out that Latin America is going
through a stage of asymmetric development, observing polarization – from
states with a high level of democracy, such as Costa Rica, Uruguay, Chile,
to authoritarian – Cuba, Nicaragua and Venezuela. The authors examine
the authoritarian regimes of Nicaragua, Venezuela, Honduras, and Bolivia,
and conclude that the Latin American continent is experiencing a gradual
minimization of political and social rights, democratic values, and the
separation of powers.
Clearly, these works are quite valuable achievements in relation to the
fact that at present the issue of authoritarianism and the ght against it
in the civilized world arises more and more often. However, the number
of studies devoted to the legal aspects of the authoritarian regime of Latin
American countries is quite small. Therefore, we believe that there is a need
for a comprehensive study of this topic.
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Oleksandr Oleksandrovych Skrypniuk, Oleksandr Vasylovych Skrypniuk, Oksana Vasylivna
Burlak, Nina Oleksandrivna Doroshchuk y Olena Viktorivna Popova
Legal Aspects of the authoritarian regime in Latin America
3. Results and Discussion
Legal norms in the countries of Latin America have always been
considered as an important social phenomenon. After all, on the one
hand, the law allows for the regulation of social relations, and on the other
hand, it “organizes a heterogeneous and complex social reality” (Villegas
and Rodríguez, 2003: 33). The best example of this is the Latin American
experience – the experience of the struggle between the legal norms of
authoritarianism and democracy.
It is no secret that authoritarianism is on the rise and democracy is on
the decline. This fact is conrmed by wars, military coups, transfer (gift) of
power, restriction of rights and freedoms, etc.
The least democratic Latin American countries are El Salvador, Cuba,
Haiti, Nicaragua and Venezuela, whose governments are authoritarian
ones. Along with this, there is a growth of hybrid “authoritarian-democratic”
regimes, which now number eight in 2022. This indicates the gradual
decline of democracy in the region (Graphic Detail, 2023).
Fig. 1. EIU Democracy Index, 2022 (Democracy Digest, 2023).
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A change in the political regime always implies modication in social
relations, legal instruments, legal culture, public consciousness, etc. First of
all, these are targeted actions aimed at changing people’s behavior with the
help of various legal means – rules and principles of law, law enforcement
actions, contracts, legal facts, subjective rights and legal obligations,
prohibitions, benets, realization of rights through separate mechanisms,
etc. That is, such legal means carry legal consequences, which determines
the eectiveness or nullity of legal regulation.
Analyzing the experience of Latin America, we can conclude that the
process of authoritarian dynamics was accompanied and continues to be
accompanied by abuse of power, social and cultural values, use of repeated
coercive measures, which tends to interfere with established legal norms.
This regime is formed on the ideal of slavery and freedom, independence
and subjection, justice and inequality, wealth and poverty. All these signs
are rooted in authoritarianism, and are also deeply disguised as democracy.
Then the question arises: how to can live in a system of dictatorship,
endless struggle, but at the same time promises of freedom, autonomy and
independence? Perhaps authoritarianism is the essence of Latin American
existence, inherited by culture and time? (Cuevas Silva, 2014).
García Hamilton (2004) notes that “there is an authoritarian political
culture in Latin American society – a set of beliefs, feelings, ideas, thoughts
and attitudes that make possible accepting guardianship, giving up self-
government and situations that often lead to the denial of minority rights,
cruelty and genocide”.
That is, countries that maintain the «appearance» of democracy but are
dictatorial, violating human rights and freedoms, concentrate power in the
hands of one person or elite, fail to adhere to the principle of separation
of powers and the rule of law, belong to the category of countries with an
authoritarian regime (Borges, 2023).
Therefore, the countries of the Latin American region – El Salvador,
Cuba, Nicaragua, Venezuela, which we propose to consider, are a vivid
example of authoritarian rule.
a. Salvador
Abuse of power and impunity are the norm. For example, the 2016 trial
of the rape and killing of nearly 1,000 civilians, including 553 children, by
army soldiers, has been suspended with the support of incumbent President
Bukele. And the judge who conducted this process was dismissed due to the
fact that he is over 60 (El Salvador 2022).
In 2021, the President and his allies dismiss the Supreme Court judges
and remove prosecutors, whose decisions they did not like. Shortly after
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Oleksandr Oleksandrovych Skrypniuk, Oleksandr Vasylovych Skrypniuk, Oksana Vasylivna
Burlak, Nina Oleksandrivna Doroshchuk y Olena Viktorivna Popova
Legal Aspects of the authoritarian regime in Latin America
that, the judges of the Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court issued
a ruling on Bukele’s candidacy for early re-election, despite the fact that it is
prohibited by the Constitution (Human Rights Watch 2021a).
The government also proposed to amend the Constitution and provide
for the extension of the president’s powers from 5 to 6 years, the reform of
democratic institutions, the liquidation of the Constitutional Chamber of
the Supreme Court and other changes (Delcid, 2021).
It should also be noted that “control” over certain territories (mainly
poor ones) in the country is carried out by armed groups. According to
mass media, there are about 60,000 members of the gang (Europa Press
Internacional, 2021). Note, that the total population of El Salvador is 6.3
million.
El Salvador ratied the Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities (Naciones Unidas, 2008), adopted the Special Law on the
Integration of Persons with Disabilities (CONAIPD, 2021), but the problem
of violation of the rights of such citizens still exists. Especially vulnerable
are women and girls who are constantly attacked by gangs.
b. Cuba
There is an ongoing economic crisis, which directly aects social
and economic rights of the population. Dissent is punished by arrests,
intimidation, and bullying (Redacción Radio Televisión Martí, 2023).
Thus, during peaceful protests in July 2021, 17-year-old Gabriela
Zequeira Hernández, who passed by the demonstration and witnessed the
process, was arrested. She was forced to strip and squat, after which the
court imposed an eight-month sentence of deprivation for public disorder.
Later it became known that the minor was detained by members of the
Special National Brigade of the Cuban government (BBC News Mundo,
2021).
The government controls all mass media and information from abroad.
Independent journalism is prohibited in the region. In 2019, the situation
with access to the Internet improved, so journalists, researchers, and
bloggers were able to report on cases of cruelty against Cuban residents.
But the high cost of the Internet and services prevent them from becoming
widely known. Along with this, the government blocks access to various
websites and blogs, as well as mobile phones (communication) (DDC,
2021).
Law 35/2021 of August 17, 2021 (Consejo de Estado, 2021) establishes
that providers should interrupt, suspend or cancel all services (not calls!)
when a user publishes or proclaims information that is “false” or aects
“public morality”.
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The Resolution on Cyber Security (Ministerio de Comunicaciones,
2021), published along with the specied Law, also includes provisions on
actions, statements contributing to «social indiscipline and damage to the
prestige of the country», which must be destroyed.
The government also has the authority to ban departure from (or entry
into) the country in order to protect national security. For example, Cuban
journalist Karla Pérez was banned from entering the country after studying
in Costa Rica (SAMAN, 2021).
If we talk about detainees and prisoners, there is no mechanism to
ensure their rights, in particular to involve a defender or a representative
or to report ill-treatment. This is due to the fact that the government does
not recognize human rights activities as legitimate. Those who try to do so
are subjected to more abuse and denial of medical care. The government
also prevents international organizations from inspecting prisons (Human
Rights Watch, 2021b).
With regard to violations of labour rights, legislation permits the
establishment of trade unions, but de facto only the state-controlled Central
de Trabajadores de Cuba trade union operates.
c. Nicaragua
There are strict restrictions on freedom of speech and political
discrimination.
In 2016, President Ortega’s government abolished all restrictions on
presidential power and prevented other political parties from participating
in the elections. The latter was elected for the fourth term in a row, which
indicates that these elections do not conform to at least universally
recognized legal norms the eld of the electoral process (McConnell,
2021).
The path to “success” was expressed in the persecution and detention
of other government representatives, presidential candidates, members of
political parties, journalists, lawyers, businessmen and simply leaders of
speech (Human Rights Watch, 2021c).
It is very interesting that in December 2020, the government adopted the
Law on the Protection of the People’s Rights to Independence, Sovereignty
and Self-Determination (Prensa-Asamblea Nacional, 2020), the provisions
of which prohibit the above «traitors» to run for and hold public oce.
As for law enforcement agencies, the reform of the criminal procedure
legislation allowed them to detain a person for up to 90 days without charge
(Human Rights Watch, 2021d).
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Burlak, Nina Oleksandrivna Doroshchuk y Olena Viktorivna Popova
Legal Aspects of the authoritarian regime in Latin America
That is, the proper legal procedure for detention and custody is
not respected – there are harsh conditions of connement, bullying,
malnutrition and constant interrogations. The authorities prevent the right
of a person to have a lawyer, while appointing “their” public defenders.
Nicaragua Nunca and Human Rights Collective report that persecution
and oppression by the Ortega government forced journalists to leave the
country to escape repression (Broner, 2021).
d. Venezuela
Mysterious disappearances, executions, imprisonment, torture and
repression, which have only intensied with the Covid-19 pandemic,
have helped the Venezuelan government to further control the country’s
population. The judiciary is also fully under the control of the government.
The following armed groups operate in Venezuela: National Liberation
Army (el Ejército de Liberación Nacional (ELN)), Patriotic Forces of National
Liberation (las Fuerzas Patrióticas de Liberación Nacional (FPLN)), Special
Action Forces (las Fuerzas de Acciones Especiales (FAES)), etc., which
help maintain the so-called “order” in the territory (Human Rights Watch,
2021e).
The UN Independent Mission found a number of violations in the
country that constitute crimes against humanity – abuse of judicial
authorities, illegal arrests without warrants, pre-trial detention, torture and
lack of evidence (Naciones Unidas, 2022).
Overcrowding, sta shortages, corruption have helped gangs to take
control over the prisoners. This is accompanied by a lack of water and food,
medical services, and as a result – hunger and deadly diseases.
As for the freedom of speech, the government has absolute authority
to regulate the media. In 2017, the Law against Hate (Comité para la
protección de los Periodistas (CPJ), 2017) was adopted, which prohibits
“promoting fascism, intolerance or hatred” and provides punishment for
those who publish “intolerant messages” – imprisonment for a term of up
to 20 years.
Another interesting fact is that Venezuela withdrew from the American
Convention on Human Rights in 2013 (El pais International, 2013). This
means that the struggle for human rights in this country is short-lived, but
punishment is inevitable.
Thus, after analyzing the legal aspects of the authoritarian regime of the
selected countries, it is possible to determine their common features. And
in this matter, we fully agree with Ronald Chacín Fuenmayor and Giancarlo
Leal Orozco, who note that the authoritarianism of the Latin American
region is accompanied by:
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1) weak institutions of political control;
2) concentration of the President’s power;
3) obsession with the goal of re-electing the President;
4) high level of corruption;
5) control over the judicial system and other law agencies;
6) lack of accountability of state funds;
7) democratic elections as a way to come to power;
8) no legal restrictions – according to the principle of «will be as I want»;
9) adoption of laws limiting people’s rights and freedoms;
10) aggressive attitude towards their political opponents (Fuenmayor
and Orozco, 2019).
Finally, we would like to note the following: the model of legal regulation
in the specied countries is ideal to achieve the management goals of the
authoritarian leaders «without title»: such a policy does not have legal
control, but has signs of abuse of power through law and coercion; the lack
of judicial independence helps to rule society with the help of gangs and
armed groups; fear and poverty are not an obstacle in the formation of a
political system, but a value; corruption is a tool of domination, and human
rights violations are the most striking example of the absence of the guiding
principle of the rule of law.
Conclusions
The analysis of the research topic allowed us to come to the following
conclusions:
International or national legal norms cannot limit the aggressive
political power in the conditions of an authoritarian regime. Sometimes,
the same legal norms are used in the opposite direction - to violate freedom
of speech, personal rights and freedoms, concentration of power, evasion of
responsibility for violation of the law or, on the contrary, illegal attraction
to it.
We can observe a pronounced authoritarian regime in El Salvador,
Cuba, Nicaragua and Venezuela - Latin American countries with rather
interesting anti-democratic ways of governing.
The conducted research allowed us to understand that legal awareness,
legal culture, and freedom of speech do not work in the selected regions;
there is excessive abuse of power, intimidation, falsication of elections,
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Burlak, Nina Oleksandrivna Doroshchuk y Olena Viktorivna Popova
Legal Aspects of the authoritarian regime in Latin America
violations of the rights of detainees and prisoners, armed conicts and gang
activity.
In El Salvador, Cuba, Nicaragua, and Venezuela, the authoritarian
regime is an instrument of social control and shares some common
features, including: concentration of power in the hands of the president
or government, government control of the judiciary and legislature,
corruption, and human rights abuses.
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Esta revista fue editada en formato digital y publicada
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