Estrategias de aprendizaje de idiomas empleadas
por estudiantes universitarios vietnamitas:
una comparación de género
Wa Thái Như Phương
Tay Do University, Vietnam
E-mail: wtnphuong@tdu.edu.vn; ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1746-5173
Resumen. El propósito de este estudio fue investigar la frecuencia de las estrate-
gias de aprendizaje de idiomas empleadas por estudiantes universitarios vietnamitas de
primer año. También examinó la relación entre el género y las estrategias de aprendi-
zaje de idiomas. Para recopilar y analizar datos para este estudio, se utilizaron enfoques
de métodos mixtos, que incorporaron datos tanto cuantitativos como cualitativos. En
la fase cuantitativa participaron un total de 100 estudiantes de primer año de una uni-
versidad vietnamita (50 mujeres y 50 hombres). Veinte estudiantes participaron en la
fase de entrevista del estudio durante la fase cualitativa. Se utilizó una guía de entrevis-
ta semiestructurada para recopilar datos cualitativos, mientras que en la fase cuantita-
tiva se utilizó un cuestionario adaptado del Strategies Inventory of Language Learning
de Oxford (1990). Los hallazgos demostraron que, con la excepción de las estrategias
compensatorias, las estudiantes utilizaron estrategias de aprendizaje de idiomas con
mucha más frecuencia que los estudiantes varones. En comparación con los hombres,
las mujeres emplearon tácticas más indirectas. Además, la técnica social fue la estra-
tegia de aprendizaje de idiomas más utilizada tanto por estudiantes masculinos como
femeninos. Los hombres tendieron a emplear tácticas de memoria con más frecuencia
que las mujeres, mientras que las mujeres utilizaron estrategias compensatorias con
menos frecuencia. Los hallazgos mostraron que, con respecto a la utilización de cada
tipo de estrategia, las diferencias de género no fueron estadísticamente significativas
en las tres categorías de estrategias de aprendizaje de idiomas: afectiva, compensatoria
y cognitiva.
Palabras clave: género, estrategias de aprendizaje, influencias de género, estudiantes
universitarios, lengua extranjera.
Recibido: 18/06/2024 ~ Aceptado: 28/09/2024
INTERACCIÓN Y PERSPECTIVA
Revista de Trabajo Social
ISSN 2244-808X ~ Dep. Legal pp 201002Z43506
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14031731
Vol. 15 (1): 196- 218 pp, 2025
por estudiantes universitarios vietnamitas:
una comparación de género
Wa Thái Như Phương
Tay Do University, Vietnam
E-mail: wtnphuong@tdu.edu.vn; ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1746-5173
Resumen. El propósito de este estudio fue investigar la frecuencia de las estrate-
gias de aprendizaje de idiomas empleadas por estudiantes universitarios vietnamitas de
primer año. También examinó la relación entre el género y las estrategias de aprendi-
zaje de idiomas. Para recopilar y analizar datos para este estudio, se utilizaron enfoques
de métodos mixtos, que incorporaron datos tanto cuantitativos como cualitativos. En
la fase cuantitativa participaron un total de 100 estudiantes de primer año de una uni-
versidad vietnamita (50 mujeres y 50 hombres). Veinte estudiantes participaron en la
fase de entrevista del estudio durante la fase cualitativa. Se utilizó una guía de entrevis-
ta semiestructurada para recopilar datos cualitativos, mientras que en la fase cuantita-
tiva se utilizó un cuestionario adaptado del Strategies Inventory of Language Learning
de Oxford (1990). Los hallazgos demostraron que, con la excepción de las estrategias
compensatorias, las estudiantes utilizaron estrategias de aprendizaje de idiomas con
mucha más frecuencia que los estudiantes varones. En comparación con los hombres,
las mujeres emplearon tácticas más indirectas. Además, la técnica social fue la estra-
tegia de aprendizaje de idiomas más utilizada tanto por estudiantes masculinos como
femeninos. Los hombres tendieron a emplear tácticas de memoria con más frecuencia
que las mujeres, mientras que las mujeres utilizaron estrategias compensatorias con
menos frecuencia. Los hallazgos mostraron que, con respecto a la utilización de cada
tipo de estrategia, las diferencias de género no fueron estadísticamente significativas
en las tres categorías de estrategias de aprendizaje de idiomas: afectiva, compensatoria
y cognitiva.
Palabras clave: género, estrategias de aprendizaje, influencias de género, estudiantes
universitarios, lengua extranjera.
Recibido: 18/06/2024 ~ Aceptado: 28/09/2024
INTERACCIÓN Y PERSPECTIVA
Revista de Trabajo Social
ISSN 2244-808X ~ Dep. Legal pp 201002Z43506
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14031731
Vol. 15 (1): 196- 218 pp, 2025
Estrategias de aprendizaje de idiomas empleadas por estudiantes universitarios vietnamitas:
una comparación de género 197Vol. 15(1) enero-marzo 2025/ 196 - 218
Language learning strategies employed by Vietnamese
university undergraduates: a gender comparison
Abstract. The purpose of this study was to look into the frequency of language
learning strategies employed by first-year Vietnamese university undergraduates. It
also examined the relationship between gender and language learning strategies. In
order to collect and analyze data for this study, mix method approaches were used,
which incorporated both quantitative and qualitative data. A total of 100 first-year
students from a Vietnamese university—50 females and 50 males—were involved in
the quantitative phase. Twenty students participated in the study’s interview phase
during the qualitative phase. A semi-structured interview guide was utilized to gather
qualitative data, while a questionnaire adapted from Oxford’s (1990) Strategies Inven-
tory of Language Learning was the instrument used in the quantitative phase. The
findings demonstrated that, with the exception of compensatory strategies, female stu-
dents considerably more frequently used language learning strategies than did male
students. Compared to males, females employed more indirect tactics. Furthermore,
social technique was the most often utilized language learning strategies by both male
and female students. Males tended to employ memory tactics more frequently than
females, whereas females used compensatory strategies less frequently. The findings
showed that, with regard to the utilization of each strategy type, gender differences
were not statistically significant in the three language learning strategy categories: af-
fective, compensating, and cognitive.
Keywords: gender, learning strategies, influences of gender, undergraduates, foreign language.
INTRODUCTION
There are many ways to use in order to study a new language effectively. Past studies on second
language learning reported that students’ performance can be improved by using various strategies
in order to learn effectively and efficiently (O’Malley & Chamot, 1990, Boonkongsaen, 2014,
Oxford, 2013). One of the best ways is using learning strategies, which are defined as “specific ac-
tions, behaviors, steps, or techniques -- such as seeking out conversation partners, or giving oneself
encouragement to tackle a difficult language task -- used by students to enhance their own learn-
ing” (Scarcella & Oxford, 1992, p. 63). It is also proposed that learning strategies are transferable
in terms of these potently advantageous effects of language learning strategies (LLSs), which means
they can be taught and learned.
In addition, a great number of studies showed that there are many learner-related factors that
influence language learning, and one of those factors is gender. Several researchers in the fields of
language education have discussed the impact of gender on access to linguistic and interactional
tools, on the complexities of classroom engagement, and on language learning outcomes, moving
further into the student’s investigation. The impact of gender on ESL and EFL learning, along with
language learning techniques and other variables were sought in this regard. Nonetheless, the es-
sence of the relation between gender and learning a foreign or second language remains unclear, or
rather, various researchers are approaching it from several different viewpoints.
una comparación de género 197Vol. 15(1) enero-marzo 2025/ 196 - 218
Language learning strategies employed by Vietnamese
university undergraduates: a gender comparison
Abstract. The purpose of this study was to look into the frequency of language
learning strategies employed by first-year Vietnamese university undergraduates. It
also examined the relationship between gender and language learning strategies. In
order to collect and analyze data for this study, mix method approaches were used,
which incorporated both quantitative and qualitative data. A total of 100 first-year
students from a Vietnamese university—50 females and 50 males—were involved in
the quantitative phase. Twenty students participated in the study’s interview phase
during the qualitative phase. A semi-structured interview guide was utilized to gather
qualitative data, while a questionnaire adapted from Oxford’s (1990) Strategies Inven-
tory of Language Learning was the instrument used in the quantitative phase. The
findings demonstrated that, with the exception of compensatory strategies, female stu-
dents considerably more frequently used language learning strategies than did male
students. Compared to males, females employed more indirect tactics. Furthermore,
social technique was the most often utilized language learning strategies by both male
and female students. Males tended to employ memory tactics more frequently than
females, whereas females used compensatory strategies less frequently. The findings
showed that, with regard to the utilization of each strategy type, gender differences
were not statistically significant in the three language learning strategy categories: af-
fective, compensating, and cognitive.
Keywords: gender, learning strategies, influences of gender, undergraduates, foreign language.
INTRODUCTION
There are many ways to use in order to study a new language effectively. Past studies on second
language learning reported that students’ performance can be improved by using various strategies
in order to learn effectively and efficiently (O’Malley & Chamot, 1990, Boonkongsaen, 2014,
Oxford, 2013). One of the best ways is using learning strategies, which are defined as “specific ac-
tions, behaviors, steps, or techniques -- such as seeking out conversation partners, or giving oneself
encouragement to tackle a difficult language task -- used by students to enhance their own learn-
ing” (Scarcella & Oxford, 1992, p. 63). It is also proposed that learning strategies are transferable
in terms of these potently advantageous effects of language learning strategies (LLSs), which means
they can be taught and learned.
In addition, a great number of studies showed that there are many learner-related factors that
influence language learning, and one of those factors is gender. Several researchers in the fields of
language education have discussed the impact of gender on access to linguistic and interactional
tools, on the complexities of classroom engagement, and on language learning outcomes, moving
further into the student’s investigation. The impact of gender on ESL and EFL learning, along with
language learning techniques and other variables were sought in this regard. Nonetheless, the es-
sence of the relation between gender and learning a foreign or second language remains unclear, or
rather, various researchers are approaching it from several different viewpoints.
198 Như PhươngInteracción y Perspectiva. R evista de Trabajo S ocial V ol. 1 5 ( 1 ) : 2 0 2 5
According to Nguyen (2013), there have been several studies using either quantitative or quali-
tative methods with respect to research methodology in the field of LLSs. However, there are not
many studies which combine both methods to optimize the results of study. Since LLSs are very
complicated with many inter-related problems, it is highly recommended that more mixed ap-
proaches to the exploration of LLSs among language learners should be used in the exploration of
LLSs among language learners. Another gap in the field that needs to be addressed is that the rela-
tionship has not been firmly defined between learner variables and the use of LLS. There are cases
of contradictory outcomes provided by studies of the same interests, which can be confusing for
researchers and practitioners alike.
Studies conducted in Vietnamese teaching and learning contexts are remarkably uncommon
considering the increasing research activities worldwide in the field of LLSs. Significant issues such
as LLSs have such an obvious significance that they can seem odd in their rarity. Currently, with just
a few published articles, Vietnamese context-specific research into various facets of LLSs is still in its
infancy stage. This lack of relevant publications suggests a scarcity of practices focused on research
or a lack of interest about this topic and poses a significant awareness gap that needs to be filled.
This particular study will use both quantitative and qualitative approaches to have a mostly
complete insights into the topic. The previous studies focusing on the use of LLSs and the role of
gender only used questionnaires to collect data and evaluate the frequency of use, while the current
study used both questionnaires and semi-structured interviews to examine whether there are differ-
ences between male and female students in term of LLSs use.
Research questions
The following questions were addressed in this study:
1. What are the language learning strategies used by first-year male and female students?
2. Is there any difference in terms of language learning strategies used by the students based
on gender?
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definitions of language learning strategies
LLSs play a crucial role in the learning process and have been defined differently by many re-
searchers. According to Wenden (1987a), LLSs can be defined from the aspect of language learning
behaviors, such as learning and regulating the meaning of a second or foreign language, cognitive
theory, such as learners’ strategic knowledge of language learning, and the affective view, such as learn-
ers’ motivation, attitude, etc. It is argued that three points of views can improve language learning.
From the cognitive perspective, LLSs are defined by many scholars as techniques, methods,
or procedures used by learners to deal with the information they receive. The earliest definition is
provided by Rubin (1975) as “techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge”
(p. 43). In the same line, Weinstein and Mayer (1986) define learning strategies as “methods or
techniques that individuals use to improve their comprehension, learning, and retention of infor-
mation.” Similarly, Chamot and Kupper (1989) also acknowledge that LLSs are “techniques which
students use to comprehend, store, and remember new information and skills” (p. 13). Chamot
(2008) considers learning strategies as “techniques for understanding, remembering, and using in-
formation and skills” (p. 1).
According to Nguyen (2013), there have been several studies using either quantitative or quali-
tative methods with respect to research methodology in the field of LLSs. However, there are not
many studies which combine both methods to optimize the results of study. Since LLSs are very
complicated with many inter-related problems, it is highly recommended that more mixed ap-
proaches to the exploration of LLSs among language learners should be used in the exploration of
LLSs among language learners. Another gap in the field that needs to be addressed is that the rela-
tionship has not been firmly defined between learner variables and the use of LLS. There are cases
of contradictory outcomes provided by studies of the same interests, which can be confusing for
researchers and practitioners alike.
Studies conducted in Vietnamese teaching and learning contexts are remarkably uncommon
considering the increasing research activities worldwide in the field of LLSs. Significant issues such
as LLSs have such an obvious significance that they can seem odd in their rarity. Currently, with just
a few published articles, Vietnamese context-specific research into various facets of LLSs is still in its
infancy stage. This lack of relevant publications suggests a scarcity of practices focused on research
or a lack of interest about this topic and poses a significant awareness gap that needs to be filled.
This particular study will use both quantitative and qualitative approaches to have a mostly
complete insights into the topic. The previous studies focusing on the use of LLSs and the role of
gender only used questionnaires to collect data and evaluate the frequency of use, while the current
study used both questionnaires and semi-structured interviews to examine whether there are differ-
ences between male and female students in term of LLSs use.
Research questions
The following questions were addressed in this study:
1. What are the language learning strategies used by first-year male and female students?
2. Is there any difference in terms of language learning strategies used by the students based
on gender?
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definitions of language learning strategies
LLSs play a crucial role in the learning process and have been defined differently by many re-
searchers. According to Wenden (1987a), LLSs can be defined from the aspect of language learning
behaviors, such as learning and regulating the meaning of a second or foreign language, cognitive
theory, such as learners’ strategic knowledge of language learning, and the affective view, such as learn-
ers’ motivation, attitude, etc. It is argued that three points of views can improve language learning.
From the cognitive perspective, LLSs are defined by many scholars as techniques, methods,
or procedures used by learners to deal with the information they receive. The earliest definition is
provided by Rubin (1975) as “techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge”
(p. 43). In the same line, Weinstein and Mayer (1986) define learning strategies as “methods or
techniques that individuals use to improve their comprehension, learning, and retention of infor-
mation.” Similarly, Chamot and Kupper (1989) also acknowledge that LLSs are “techniques which
students use to comprehend, store, and remember new information and skills” (p. 13). Chamot
(2008) considers learning strategies as “techniques for understanding, remembering, and using in-
formation and skills” (p. 1).
Estrategias de aprendizaje de idiomas empleadas por estudiantes universitarios vietnamitas:
una comparación de género 199Vol. 15(1) enero-marzo 2025/ 196 - 218
From the aspect of learning behaviors, many scholars have provided different definitions of LLSs.
O’Malley and Chamot (1990) view learning strategies as “the special thoughts or behaviors that indi-
viduals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information” (p. 1). Weinstein and Mayer
(1983) consider learning strategies as “behaviors and thoughts in which a learner engages and which
are intended to influence the learner’s encoding process” (p. 3). More specifically, according to Ander-
son (1985), these thoughts and behaviors constitute organized plans of action designed to achieve a
goal. These definitions capture the features and the purposes of LLSs. Mayer (1988) defines LLSs as
“behaviors of a learner that are intended to influence how the learner processes information” (p. 11).
Taking one step further, Stern (1975, p. 311) states “the concept of learning strategy is depen-
dent on the assumption that learners consciously engage in activities to achieve certain goals and
learning strategies can be regarded as broadly conceived intentional directions and learning tech-
niques.” In addition, Oxford (2008, p. 41), claims that L2 learning strategies are “the goal-oriented
actions or steps (e.g., plan, evaluate, analyse) that learners take, with some degree of consciousness,
to enhance their L2 learning.” Similarly, Chamot (2004) suggests that learning strategies are “the
conscious thoughts and actions that learners take in order to achieve a learning goal” (p. 14).
In general, throughout the years, many researchers gave their own definitions about LLSs.
Thus, it is rather difficult to generalise all the definitions provided by different scholars. The follow-
ing table is a summary on the definitions of LLSs from many different researchers.
TABLE 1. Definitions of language learning strategies
Source Definition
Tarone (1981) An attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target
language.
Rubin (1987) What learners do to learn and do to regulate their learning.
Chamot (1987) Techniques, approaches or deliberate actions that students take in order to
facilitate learning, recall of both linguistic and content information.
Wenden (1987) The term refers to language behaviours learners engage in to learn and regulate the
learning of L2, to what learners know about the strategies they use (i.e. strategic
knowledge), and to what learner know about aspects of L2 learning.
Weinstein and Mayer
(1986)
Behaviours and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning that are
intended to influence the learner’s encoding process
Oxford (1990) Behaviours or actions which learners use to make language learning more
successful, self-directed and enjoyable.
Ellis (1995) Generally, a strategy is a mental or behavioural activity related to some specific
stage in the process of language acquisition or language use.
Ridley (1997) Broadly speaking, the term strategy denotes procedures which are sometimes
conscious and sometimes unconscious used by a person as a way of reaching a goal.
Cohen (1998) Processes which are consciously selected by learners and which may result in
action taken to enhance the learning or use of a L2, through the storage, recall
and application of information about that language.
Purpura (1999) Conscious or unconscious techniques or activities that an individual invokes in
language learning, use or testing.
una comparación de género 199Vol. 15(1) enero-marzo 2025/ 196 - 218
From the aspect of learning behaviors, many scholars have provided different definitions of LLSs.
O’Malley and Chamot (1990) view learning strategies as “the special thoughts or behaviors that indi-
viduals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information” (p. 1). Weinstein and Mayer
(1983) consider learning strategies as “behaviors and thoughts in which a learner engages and which
are intended to influence the learner’s encoding process” (p. 3). More specifically, according to Ander-
son (1985), these thoughts and behaviors constitute organized plans of action designed to achieve a
goal. These definitions capture the features and the purposes of LLSs. Mayer (1988) defines LLSs as
“behaviors of a learner that are intended to influence how the learner processes information” (p. 11).
Taking one step further, Stern (1975, p. 311) states “the concept of learning strategy is depen-
dent on the assumption that learners consciously engage in activities to achieve certain goals and
learning strategies can be regarded as broadly conceived intentional directions and learning tech-
niques.” In addition, Oxford (2008, p. 41), claims that L2 learning strategies are “the goal-oriented
actions or steps (e.g., plan, evaluate, analyse) that learners take, with some degree of consciousness,
to enhance their L2 learning.” Similarly, Chamot (2004) suggests that learning strategies are “the
conscious thoughts and actions that learners take in order to achieve a learning goal” (p. 14).
In general, throughout the years, many researchers gave their own definitions about LLSs.
Thus, it is rather difficult to generalise all the definitions provided by different scholars. The follow-
ing table is a summary on the definitions of LLSs from many different researchers.
TABLE 1. Definitions of language learning strategies
Source Definition
Tarone (1981) An attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target
language.
Rubin (1987) What learners do to learn and do to regulate their learning.
Chamot (1987) Techniques, approaches or deliberate actions that students take in order to
facilitate learning, recall of both linguistic and content information.
Wenden (1987) The term refers to language behaviours learners engage in to learn and regulate the
learning of L2, to what learners know about the strategies they use (i.e. strategic
knowledge), and to what learner know about aspects of L2 learning.
Weinstein and Mayer
(1986)
Behaviours and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning that are
intended to influence the learner’s encoding process
Oxford (1990) Behaviours or actions which learners use to make language learning more
successful, self-directed and enjoyable.
Ellis (1995) Generally, a strategy is a mental or behavioural activity related to some specific
stage in the process of language acquisition or language use.
Ridley (1997) Broadly speaking, the term strategy denotes procedures which are sometimes
conscious and sometimes unconscious used by a person as a way of reaching a goal.
Cohen (1998) Processes which are consciously selected by learners and which may result in
action taken to enhance the learning or use of a L2, through the storage, recall
and application of information about that language.
Purpura (1999) Conscious or unconscious techniques or activities that an individual invokes in
language learning, use or testing.
200 Như PhươngInteracción y Perspectiva. R evista de Trabajo S ocial V ol. 1 5 ( 1 ) : 2 0 2 5
The definitions of language learner strategies mentioned proves that learning strategies can
help learners to control their own learning and become more proficient. Therefore, it is necessary
for teachers to make their students aware about these learning strategies and how to use them in
learning foreign languages. The following section is devoted to present the main features related
to LLSs.
Oxford’s taxonomy of language learning strategies
Oxford’s classification is regarded as the most comprehensive classification and has been used
by many researchers (Ellis 1994, as cited in Tam 2013) Oxford (1990) has classified LLSs into two
categories: direct and indirect strategies as shown in Figure 1. Direct strategies consist of memo-
ry strategies, cognitive strategies and compensation strategies whereas indirect strategies comprise
metacognitive strategies, affective strategies and social strategies.
Figure 1. Strategy system according to Oxford (1990, p. 16)
Direct Strategies
According to Oxford (1990), direct techniques are LLSs that directly involve the target lan-
guage. The main characteristic of all direct strategies is that they involve the mental processing of
the language. Direct strategies are further categorized into three groups: memory strategy,
cognitive strategy and compensation strategy.
Memory Strategies
Memory strategies are defined as methods to help learners store and retrieve new information.
Oxford (1990) classifies memory strategies the four categories: creating mental linkage, applying
images and sounds, reviewing well, and employing action. The following diagram shows the clusters
of the memory strategies.
The definitions of language learner strategies mentioned proves that learning strategies can
help learners to control their own learning and become more proficient. Therefore, it is necessary
for teachers to make their students aware about these learning strategies and how to use them in
learning foreign languages. The following section is devoted to present the main features related
to LLSs.
Oxford’s taxonomy of language learning strategies
Oxford’s classification is regarded as the most comprehensive classification and has been used
by many researchers (Ellis 1994, as cited in Tam 2013) Oxford (1990) has classified LLSs into two
categories: direct and indirect strategies as shown in Figure 1. Direct strategies consist of memo-
ry strategies, cognitive strategies and compensation strategies whereas indirect strategies comprise
metacognitive strategies, affective strategies and social strategies.
Figure 1. Strategy system according to Oxford (1990, p. 16)
Direct Strategies
According to Oxford (1990), direct techniques are LLSs that directly involve the target lan-
guage. The main characteristic of all direct strategies is that they involve the mental processing of
the language. Direct strategies are further categorized into three groups: memory strategy,
cognitive strategy and compensation strategy.
Memory Strategies
Memory strategies are defined as methods to help learners store and retrieve new information.
Oxford (1990) classifies memory strategies the four categories: creating mental linkage, applying
images and sounds, reviewing well, and employing action. The following diagram shows the clusters
of the memory strategies.
Estrategias de aprendizaje de idiomas empleadas por estudiantes universitarios vietnamitas:
una comparación de género 201Vol. 15(1) enero-marzo 2025/ 196 - 218
Figure 2. Diagram of the Memory Strategies (Oxford, 1990, p. 18)
Cognitive Strategies
For Oxford (1990), cognitive strategies enable learners to manipulate or transform the target
language. In other words, they enable learners to understand and produce new language through
many different means.
Cognitive strategies are grouped into four categories: practicing, receiving and sending mes-
sages, analyzing and reasoning, and creating structure for input and output. The following diagram
shows the clusters of the cognitive strategies.
Figure 3. Diagram of the Cognitive Strategies (Oxford, 1990, p. 18-19)
una comparación de género 201Vol. 15(1) enero-marzo 2025/ 196 - 218
Figure 2. Diagram of the Memory Strategies (Oxford, 1990, p. 18)
Cognitive Strategies
For Oxford (1990), cognitive strategies enable learners to manipulate or transform the target
language. In other words, they enable learners to understand and produce new language through
many different means.
Cognitive strategies are grouped into four categories: practicing, receiving and sending mes-
sages, analyzing and reasoning, and creating structure for input and output. The following diagram
shows the clusters of the cognitive strategies.
Figure 3. Diagram of the Cognitive Strategies (Oxford, 1990, p. 18-19)
202 Như PhươngInteracción y Perspectiva. R evista de Trabajo S ocial V ol. 1 5 ( 1 ) : 2 0 2 5
Compensation Strategies
According to Oxford (1990), compensation strategies are the strategies that enable learners to
use the new language for either comprehension or production in spite of limitations in knowledge.
As compensation is present both in comprehension and in production, these strategies let learners
produce both spoken and written expressions in the target language. Compensation strategies for
production are used to compensate and make up for a lack of appropriate vocabulary and gram-
matical knowledge. Besides, some of these strategies help learners become more fluent in their prior
knowledge. Oxford (1990) states that learners who reported to use more compensation strategies
sometimes communicate better than learners who are not.
There are ten compensation strategies listed under two sets of strategies: guessing intelligently
and overcoming limitation in speaking and writing. The following diagram shows the clusters of the
compensation strategies.
Figure 4. Diagram of the Compensation Strategies (Oxford, 1990, p. 19)
Indirect Strategies
The second major group of LLSs in Oxford’s taxonomy is called indirect strategies because they
support and manage language learning, in many instances, without directly involving the target
language (Oxford, 1990). The indirect strategies work together with the direct strategies to help
learner regulate the learning process. Thus, the indirect strategies are useful in practically all lan-
guage learning situations and are applicable to the four language skills (reading, writing, listening,
and speaking) (Oxford, 1990)
Indirect strategies are separated into three subgroups: metacognitive strategies, af-
fective strategies and social strategies.
Metacognitive Strategies
According to Oxford (1990), metacognitive strategies are actions that go beyond cognitive
devices and enable learners to control their own cognition and to coordinate their own learning pro-
cess. She believes that metacognitive strategies are very important for successful language learning.
Nevertheless, despite the importance of metacognitive strategies, learners rarely or unconsciously
use these strategies.
Compensation Strategies
According to Oxford (1990), compensation strategies are the strategies that enable learners to
use the new language for either comprehension or production in spite of limitations in knowledge.
As compensation is present both in comprehension and in production, these strategies let learners
produce both spoken and written expressions in the target language. Compensation strategies for
production are used to compensate and make up for a lack of appropriate vocabulary and gram-
matical knowledge. Besides, some of these strategies help learners become more fluent in their prior
knowledge. Oxford (1990) states that learners who reported to use more compensation strategies
sometimes communicate better than learners who are not.
There are ten compensation strategies listed under two sets of strategies: guessing intelligently
and overcoming limitation in speaking and writing. The following diagram shows the clusters of the
compensation strategies.
Figure 4. Diagram of the Compensation Strategies (Oxford, 1990, p. 19)
Indirect Strategies
The second major group of LLSs in Oxford’s taxonomy is called indirect strategies because they
support and manage language learning, in many instances, without directly involving the target
language (Oxford, 1990). The indirect strategies work together with the direct strategies to help
learner regulate the learning process. Thus, the indirect strategies are useful in practically all lan-
guage learning situations and are applicable to the four language skills (reading, writing, listening,
and speaking) (Oxford, 1990)
Indirect strategies are separated into three subgroups: metacognitive strategies, af-
fective strategies and social strategies.
Metacognitive Strategies
According to Oxford (1990), metacognitive strategies are actions that go beyond cognitive
devices and enable learners to control their own cognition and to coordinate their own learning pro-
cess. She believes that metacognitive strategies are very important for successful language learning.
Nevertheless, despite the importance of metacognitive strategies, learners rarely or unconsciously
use these strategies.
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Metacognitive strategies include eleven skills listed under three groups of strategies: centering
your learning, arranging and planning your learning and evaluating your learning. The following
diagram shows the clusters of the metacognitive strategies.
Figure 5. Diagram of the Metacognitive Strategies (Oxford, 1990, p. 20)
Affective Strategies
Having a positive feeling will help language learners to archive better performance in language
learning. Oxford (1990) refers the term “affective” to emotions, attitudes, motivation and values.
The use of affective strategies will enable learners to gain control over factors related to emotions,
attitudes, motivations and values through the use of affective strategies. There are ten skills listed
under three sets of affective strategies. They are lowering your anxiety, encouraging yourself, and tak-
ing your emotional temperature. The following diagram shows the clusters of the affective strategies.
Figure 6. Diagram of the Affective Strategies (Oxford, 1990, p. 20)
Social Strategies
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Metacognitive strategies include eleven skills listed under three groups of strategies: centering
your learning, arranging and planning your learning and evaluating your learning. The following
diagram shows the clusters of the metacognitive strategies.
Figure 5. Diagram of the Metacognitive Strategies (Oxford, 1990, p. 20)
Affective Strategies
Having a positive feeling will help language learners to archive better performance in language
learning. Oxford (1990) refers the term “affective” to emotions, attitudes, motivation and values.
The use of affective strategies will enable learners to gain control over factors related to emotions,
attitudes, motivations and values through the use of affective strategies. There are ten skills listed
under three sets of affective strategies. They are lowering your anxiety, encouraging yourself, and tak-
ing your emotional temperature. The following diagram shows the clusters of the affective strategies.
Figure 6. Diagram of the Affective Strategies (Oxford, 1990, p. 20)
Social Strategies
204 Như PhươngInteracción y Perspectiva. R evista de Trabajo S ocial V ol. 1 5 ( 1 ) : 2 0 2 5
Language learning is not only learning about language but also to understand the target cul-
ture. Using social strategies will help learners to work with others and understand the target culture
as well.
There are six skills listed under three sets of social strategies. They are asking questions, coop-
erating with others, and empathizing with others. The following diagram shows the clusters of the
social strategies.
Figure 7. Diagram of the Social Strategies (Oxford, 1990, p. 21)
Research methodology
Research design
This study aims to investigate the LLSs used by the male and female undergraduates at a uni-
versity in Vietnam. For the research design, this study utilized mixed method approach, which com-
bines both quantitative and qualitative data for collection and analysis procedures to understand a
research problem more complete and strengthen the study’s conclusions (Creswell, 2017).
For the quantitative method, the study collected data from the participants by adapting a
questionnaire list of Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) version 7 by Oxford (1990).
The data collected then were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) and
interpreted the mean. In qualitative research, a semi-structured interview was conducted to explore
in depth the students’ use of LLSs and verifying whether students’ perception of gender influence on
LLSs use. According to Dornyei (2007), mixed method research increases the strengths of the study
while eliminating the weaknesses, improves the validity of the research, and usually reaches a larger
audience than a monomethod study would.
Participants
In the quantitative phase of the study, a total of 100 first-year students (50 females and
50 males) took part in the study. Their ages ranged from 19 to 22. Since they had already
passed the placement test and study in the same course, they were considered as at the same
English proficiency level. We used stratified sampling method to select the male and female
participants who were asked complete a questionnaire about their LLSs. The qualitative phase
of the study involves 10 students (5 females and 5 males) randomly selected from among the
Language learning is not only learning about language but also to understand the target cul-
ture. Using social strategies will help learners to work with others and understand the target culture
as well.
There are six skills listed under three sets of social strategies. They are asking questions, coop-
erating with others, and empathizing with others. The following diagram shows the clusters of the
social strategies.
Figure 7. Diagram of the Social Strategies (Oxford, 1990, p. 21)
Research methodology
Research design
This study aims to investigate the LLSs used by the male and female undergraduates at a uni-
versity in Vietnam. For the research design, this study utilized mixed method approach, which com-
bines both quantitative and qualitative data for collection and analysis procedures to understand a
research problem more complete and strengthen the study’s conclusions (Creswell, 2017).
For the quantitative method, the study collected data from the participants by adapting a
questionnaire list of Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) version 7 by Oxford (1990).
The data collected then were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) and
interpreted the mean. In qualitative research, a semi-structured interview was conducted to explore
in depth the students’ use of LLSs and verifying whether students’ perception of gender influence on
LLSs use. According to Dornyei (2007), mixed method research increases the strengths of the study
while eliminating the weaknesses, improves the validity of the research, and usually reaches a larger
audience than a monomethod study would.
Participants
In the quantitative phase of the study, a total of 100 first-year students (50 females and
50 males) took part in the study. Their ages ranged from 19 to 22. Since they had already
passed the placement test and study in the same course, they were considered as at the same
English proficiency level. We used stratified sampling method to select the male and female
participants who were asked complete a questionnaire about their LLSs. The qualitative phase
of the study involves 10 students (5 females and 5 males) randomly selected from among the
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questionnaire respondents. The male and female students had previously expressed their will-
ingness to participate in the semi-structured interviews.
Research instruments
This study employed a mixed method combining quantitative and qualitative approaches to
provide a more complete picture and a voice of the participants. The quantitative data were collected
through a questionnaire while a qualitative data were collected based on the participants’ responses
in semi-structured interviews. This section aims to describe the research instruments used in this
study which consist of the questionnaire and a semi-structured interview guide.
The quantitative instrument
The questionnaire used in this study consisted of two parts. Part 1 was for the demographic
data such as gender, age and student code. Part 2 was the SILL used in this current study which
consisted of 48 items classified into six sections. The brief details of SILL are given in Table 2
TABLE 2. Strategies, number of items within each section, and one sample item for each section
Strategies Items Sample items
Memory 9 I use new English words in a sentence so I can remember them
Cognitive 13 I say or write new English words several times.
Compensation 6 To understand unfamiliar English words, I make guesses.
Metacognitive 9 I look for opportunities to read as much as possible in English.
Affective 6 I encourage myself to speak English even when I am afraid of making
a mistake.
Social 5 I ask English speakers to correct me when I talk.
The items are assessed on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5. For each statement, they
had to decide whether that statement was (1) Never true, (2) Usually not true, (3) Somewhat true,
(4) Usually true, or (5) Always true of them.
The qualitative instrument
As it is a semi structured interview design, the researcher asked more supplementary questions.
The interview guide included the guiding questions and additional prompts. The prompts were used
to get deeper insight if the interviewee did not answer the questions by themselves. The interview
guide consisted of 5 parts.
Part A of the interview guide was the introduction. The main purpose of this part was to
introduce the purpose of the interview, inform about audio taping and assure the interview confi-
dentiality.
Part B consisted of opening questions to explore the background of the students.
Part C focused on how the students use the six categories of LLSs and the influence
of their gender perception on LLS use. The data collected will be analyzed to answer the
third research question and also to get a deep understanding on the students’ responses
in quantitative data.
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questionnaire respondents. The male and female students had previously expressed their will-
ingness to participate in the semi-structured interviews.
Research instruments
This study employed a mixed method combining quantitative and qualitative approaches to
provide a more complete picture and a voice of the participants. The quantitative data were collected
through a questionnaire while a qualitative data were collected based on the participants’ responses
in semi-structured interviews. This section aims to describe the research instruments used in this
study which consist of the questionnaire and a semi-structured interview guide.
The quantitative instrument
The questionnaire used in this study consisted of two parts. Part 1 was for the demographic
data such as gender, age and student code. Part 2 was the SILL used in this current study which
consisted of 48 items classified into six sections. The brief details of SILL are given in Table 2
TABLE 2. Strategies, number of items within each section, and one sample item for each section
Strategies Items Sample items
Memory 9 I use new English words in a sentence so I can remember them
Cognitive 13 I say or write new English words several times.
Compensation 6 To understand unfamiliar English words, I make guesses.
Metacognitive 9 I look for opportunities to read as much as possible in English.
Affective 6 I encourage myself to speak English even when I am afraid of making
a mistake.
Social 5 I ask English speakers to correct me when I talk.
The items are assessed on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5. For each statement, they
had to decide whether that statement was (1) Never true, (2) Usually not true, (3) Somewhat true,
(4) Usually true, or (5) Always true of them.
The qualitative instrument
As it is a semi structured interview design, the researcher asked more supplementary questions.
The interview guide included the guiding questions and additional prompts. The prompts were used
to get deeper insight if the interviewee did not answer the questions by themselves. The interview
guide consisted of 5 parts.
Part A of the interview guide was the introduction. The main purpose of this part was to
introduce the purpose of the interview, inform about audio taping and assure the interview confi-
dentiality.
Part B consisted of opening questions to explore the background of the students.
Part C focused on how the students use the six categories of LLSs and the influence
of their gender perception on LLS use. The data collected will be analyzed to answer the
third research question and also to get a deep understanding on the students’ responses
in quantitative data.
206 Như PhươngInteracción y Perspectiva. R evista de Trabajo S ocial V ol. 1 5 ( 1 ) : 2 0 2 5
Part D was supplementary questions in order to get more insights into the influence
of gender identity on their language learning strategy.
The final part E closed the interview. The interviewer thanked the participants for participating
and asked him/her for additional comments.
RESULTS AND FINDINGS
Quantitative phase
The questionnaire data collected from 100 male and female students were processed using
SSPS. The frequency of each individual strategy of the six categories of LLSs was calculated on the
basis of the mean scores for male and female participants. Descriptive statistics of language learning
strategy use were computed in order to answer the first and the second research questions.
Research Question 1: What are the most/least frequent language learning strategies used by
first-year male and female students?
TABLE 3. Means, standard deviations and ranks of the six categories of LLSS
used by male and female students
Type of strategies Male Female Overall Mean
M SD Rank M SD Rank M SD Rank
Memory 3.58 .59 6 3.91 .57 3 3.75 .60 4
Cognitive 3.67 .51 4 3.84 .48 4 3.76 .50 3
Compensation 3.70 .59 3 3.61 .65 6 3.66 .62 6
Metacognitive 3.96 .65 2 4.25 .49 2 4.11 .59 2
Affective 3.63 .83 5 3.78 .71 5 3.71 .77 5
Social 4.03 .75 1 4.31 .52 1 4.17 .66 1
Total Average 3.76 .52 3.95 .42 3.86 .48
As we can see from the table 3, the most preferred strategy category of all the students was so-
cial strategy with the overall mean of (4.17), followed by metacognitive strategy, cognitive strategy,
memory strategy and affective strategy while compensation strategy ranked the least frequently used
with the overall mean of (3.66). It should also be noted that the mean scores of strategy categories
are close to each other.
In regard to the rank order of the strategies according to their frequency of usage between male
and female students, there was a similarity in their first and second frequent LLSs. Both males and
females preferred to use social strategies mostly with the mean score of (4.03) and (4.31), respec-
tively. Metacognitive strategies were their second favored ones with mean of score of (3.96) for males
and (4.25) for females. However, the major difference in their LLS usage lied on the third and the
sixth strategies. While compensation strategies were ranked in the third place of the used strategies
by males, they were the least frequent strategy used by females. Similarly, a reverse order was found
for memory strategies, which leads them to the least frequent strategies used by males.
Part D was supplementary questions in order to get more insights into the influence
of gender identity on their language learning strategy.
The final part E closed the interview. The interviewer thanked the participants for participating
and asked him/her for additional comments.
RESULTS AND FINDINGS
Quantitative phase
The questionnaire data collected from 100 male and female students were processed using
SSPS. The frequency of each individual strategy of the six categories of LLSs was calculated on the
basis of the mean scores for male and female participants. Descriptive statistics of language learning
strategy use were computed in order to answer the first and the second research questions.
Research Question 1: What are the most/least frequent language learning strategies used by
first-year male and female students?
TABLE 3. Means, standard deviations and ranks of the six categories of LLSS
used by male and female students
Type of strategies Male Female Overall Mean
M SD Rank M SD Rank M SD Rank
Memory 3.58 .59 6 3.91 .57 3 3.75 .60 4
Cognitive 3.67 .51 4 3.84 .48 4 3.76 .50 3
Compensation 3.70 .59 3 3.61 .65 6 3.66 .62 6
Metacognitive 3.96 .65 2 4.25 .49 2 4.11 .59 2
Affective 3.63 .83 5 3.78 .71 5 3.71 .77 5
Social 4.03 .75 1 4.31 .52 1 4.17 .66 1
Total Average 3.76 .52 3.95 .42 3.86 .48
As we can see from the table 3, the most preferred strategy category of all the students was so-
cial strategy with the overall mean of (4.17), followed by metacognitive strategy, cognitive strategy,
memory strategy and affective strategy while compensation strategy ranked the least frequently used
with the overall mean of (3.66). It should also be noted that the mean scores of strategy categories
are close to each other.
In regard to the rank order of the strategies according to their frequency of usage between male
and female students, there was a similarity in their first and second frequent LLSs. Both males and
females preferred to use social strategies mostly with the mean score of (4.03) and (4.31), respec-
tively. Metacognitive strategies were their second favored ones with mean of score of (3.96) for males
and (4.25) for females. However, the major difference in their LLS usage lied on the third and the
sixth strategies. While compensation strategies were ranked in the third place of the used strategies
by males, they were the least frequent strategy used by females. Similarly, a reverse order was found
for memory strategies, which leads them to the least frequent strategies used by males.
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In general, the descriptive statistics showed that female students used strategies with
greater frequency than male students in all categories, except for the compensation strategies.
The most frequent LLSs used by both male and female students were social strategy. While
memory strategies were the least used strategies of males, compensation strategies were
the least used by females.
Research Question 2: Is there any difference in terms of language learning strategies used by
the students based on gender?
This research question aims at identifying the effect of gender variable regarding the use of
LLSs. The independent T-test was run in order to test if there was a difference in use of LLSs be-
tween females and males. Table 4.2 shows differences between male and female students regarding
direct and indirect strategies.
TABLE 4. Independent sample t-test showing students differences regarding
direct and indirect strategies according to gender variable
Strategies Gender N M SD df t Sig.
(2-tailed)
Direct Male 50 3.65 .48 -1.44 98.00 .15
Female 50 3.79 .46
Indirect Male 50 3.87 .62 -2.16 98.00 .03
Female 50 4.11 .48
Table 4 showed that there was no statistically significant difference between male (M =3.65,
SD = 0.48) and female students (M = 3.79, SD = 0.46) in the means of using direct strategies (Sig =
.15, P > 0.05). However, there was a statistically significant difference in the means of using indirect
strategies (Sig = .03, P < 0.05) between male students (M = 3.87, SD = 0.62) and female students
(M = 4.11, SD = 0.48). The results indicated the fact that females, on average, employed more indi-
rect strategies than males was significant. In order to provide a more detailed answer to the research
question 2, an independent sample t-test was used to analyze any significant differences in the use of
six categories of LLSs between male and female students. The results were shown in Table 5.
As we can be seen in table 5, there was statistically significant difference in the overall means
of using English learning strategies (Sig = .049, p < 0.05) between male students (M = 3.76, SD
= 0.52) and female students (M = 3.95, SD = 0.42), which indicated that females reported higher
overall strategy use than males and they were significantly superior to male students in using LLSs. It
could be concluded that a significant difference did exist between genders in the students’ language
learning strategy use.
When each strategy category was considered separately, the statistics showed that there were
statistically significant differences between male and female students in favor of females in the means
of using memory strategies (Sig = .006, p < 0.05), metacognitive strategies (Sig= .015, p < 0.05) and
social strategies (Sig = .034, p < 0.05).
A comparison among the means of the six categories of LLSs regarding gender variable listed
in Table 5, given above, are graphically presented in Figure 8.
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In general, the descriptive statistics showed that female students used strategies with
greater frequency than male students in all categories, except for the compensation strategies.
The most frequent LLSs used by both male and female students were social strategy. While
memory strategies were the least used strategies of males, compensation strategies were
the least used by females.
Research Question 2: Is there any difference in terms of language learning strategies used by
the students based on gender?
This research question aims at identifying the effect of gender variable regarding the use of
LLSs. The independent T-test was run in order to test if there was a difference in use of LLSs be-
tween females and males. Table 4.2 shows differences between male and female students regarding
direct and indirect strategies.
TABLE 4. Independent sample t-test showing students differences regarding
direct and indirect strategies according to gender variable
Strategies Gender N M SD df t Sig.
(2-tailed)
Direct Male 50 3.65 .48 -1.44 98.00 .15
Female 50 3.79 .46
Indirect Male 50 3.87 .62 -2.16 98.00 .03
Female 50 4.11 .48
Table 4 showed that there was no statistically significant difference between male (M =3.65,
SD = 0.48) and female students (M = 3.79, SD = 0.46) in the means of using direct strategies (Sig =
.15, P > 0.05). However, there was a statistically significant difference in the means of using indirect
strategies (Sig = .03, P < 0.05) between male students (M = 3.87, SD = 0.62) and female students
(M = 4.11, SD = 0.48). The results indicated the fact that females, on average, employed more indi-
rect strategies than males was significant. In order to provide a more detailed answer to the research
question 2, an independent sample t-test was used to analyze any significant differences in the use of
six categories of LLSs between male and female students. The results were shown in Table 5.
As we can be seen in table 5, there was statistically significant difference in the overall means
of using English learning strategies (Sig = .049, p < 0.05) between male students (M = 3.76, SD
= 0.52) and female students (M = 3.95, SD = 0.42), which indicated that females reported higher
overall strategy use than males and they were significantly superior to male students in using LLSs. It
could be concluded that a significant difference did exist between genders in the students’ language
learning strategy use.
When each strategy category was considered separately, the statistics showed that there were
statistically significant differences between male and female students in favor of females in the means
of using memory strategies (Sig = .006, p < 0.05), metacognitive strategies (Sig= .015, p < 0.05) and
social strategies (Sig = .034, p < 0.05).
A comparison among the means of the six categories of LLSs regarding gender variable listed
in Table 5, given above, are graphically presented in Figure 8.
208 Như PhươngInteracción y Perspectiva. R evista de Trabajo S ocial V ol. 1 5 ( 1 ) : 2 0 2 5
TABLE 5. Independent sample t-test showing students’ differences regarding
six categories of LLSs use according to gender variable
Strategies Level N M SD t df Sig.
(2-tailed)
Memory Male 50 3.58 .59 -2.83 98.00 .006
Female 50 3.91 .57
Cognitive Male 50 3.67 .51 -1.77 98.00 .079
Female 50 3.84 .48
Compensation Male 50 3.70 .59 .77 98.00 .441
Female 50 3.61 .65
Metacognitive Male 50 3.96 .65 -2.49 90.38 .015
Female 50 4.25 .49
Affective Male 50 3.63 .83 -1.00 98.00 .321
Female 50 3.78 .71
Social Male 50 4.03 .75 -2.16 98.00 .034
Female 50 4.31 .52
Whole Instrument Male 50 3.76 .52 -1.99 98.00 .049
Female 50 3.95 .42
Figure 8. Means of the Six Categories of LLSs regarding gender variable
As we can see from table 4.3 and chart 4.1, there were no significant differences on cognitive
strategies (Sig = .079, p > 0.05), compensation strategies (Sig = .441, p > 0.05) and affective strat-
egies (Sig = .321, p > 0.05) between male and female students in their use of LLSs. The findings
revealed that although males reported higher strategy use than females for compensation strategies,
this difference was not significant.
TABLE 5. Independent sample t-test showing students’ differences regarding
six categories of LLSs use according to gender variable
Strategies Level N M SD t df Sig.
(2-tailed)
Memory Male 50 3.58 .59 -2.83 98.00 .006
Female 50 3.91 .57
Cognitive Male 50 3.67 .51 -1.77 98.00 .079
Female 50 3.84 .48
Compensation Male 50 3.70 .59 .77 98.00 .441
Female 50 3.61 .65
Metacognitive Male 50 3.96 .65 -2.49 90.38 .015
Female 50 4.25 .49
Affective Male 50 3.63 .83 -1.00 98.00 .321
Female 50 3.78 .71
Social Male 50 4.03 .75 -2.16 98.00 .034
Female 50 4.31 .52
Whole Instrument Male 50 3.76 .52 -1.99 98.00 .049
Female 50 3.95 .42
Figure 8. Means of the Six Categories of LLSs regarding gender variable
As we can see from table 4.3 and chart 4.1, there were no significant differences on cognitive
strategies (Sig = .079, p > 0.05), compensation strategies (Sig = .441, p > 0.05) and affective strat-
egies (Sig = .321, p > 0.05) between male and female students in their use of LLSs. The findings
revealed that although males reported higher strategy use than females for compensation strategies,
this difference was not significant.
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In conclusion, the statistic results for research question 2 showed that females significantly
used higher overall LLSs than males. For each strategy category use, the results indicated that there
were statistically significant differences between male and female students in their use of memory,
metacognitive and social; however, gender differences were not significant in the three LLS catego-
ries: cognitive, compensation and affective.
Qualitative phase
Interviews conducted on 20 students including 5 males and 5 females to investigate students’
perception of gender in order to address the third research question.
Gender and the use of Memory strategy
The students’ responses through the interview confirmed the findings collected from the ques-
tionnaire that the male students seemed to use fewer memory strategies than female students. Most
of the male students reported that they did not like to use gestures or body language to remember
information. In addition, they only read the old materials when they had to take the exam. Here is
an example of the responses:
“I remember by myself or I often use new words to make sentences in real context. Also, I did not
use body language. About review lesson, hmmm, I just do it when the test is coming”. (Male 1,
English translation)
In contrast, all of five female students said they have to remember what they learnt in English.
Their ways to remember information were abundant, including making sentence with new words,
reviewing the old materials, using notebooks, using sounds, images and sensation, etc.
“I usually make a humorous sentence with a new vocabulary that smartly helps me to memorize
vocabularies. When we want to effectively study, we should combine sounds, images and sensation”.
(Female 2, English translation)
“I usually use images and make sentences into a real context to memorize new words. Besides, I have
my own note book to write words which I will review after class”. (Female 4, English translation)
When researchers asked about the differences between males and females in the ways of memo-
rizing information, all of the participants agreed on the difference. They said that females studied
harder and reviewed the lesson more regularly while males were more interested in entertainment,
especially games. Some selected responses from participants are quoted below.
“To my view, females usually take note then they can review it at home because they personally
believe if they cannot answer teachers’ question, they will be underated and criticized”. (Female 3,
English translation)
“Men usually go home to play games and when they come for exams, they will begin to practice. On
the contrary, the girls study harder”. (Female 5, English translation)
“Men are often confident of their English skills, so they seldom look at the lessons, while the girls
will study hard and regularly review the lessons”. (Male 1, English translation)
Gender and the use of Cognitive strategy
Male and female students both successfully used cognitive strategies. Their most common
strategies to learn English were listening to music and viewing movies in order to develop their lis-
tening skills. Both male and female interviewees had confirmed these.
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In conclusion, the statistic results for research question 2 showed that females significantly
used higher overall LLSs than males. For each strategy category use, the results indicated that there
were statistically significant differences between male and female students in their use of memory,
metacognitive and social; however, gender differences were not significant in the three LLS catego-
ries: cognitive, compensation and affective.
Qualitative phase
Interviews conducted on 20 students including 5 males and 5 females to investigate students’
perception of gender in order to address the third research question.
Gender and the use of Memory strategy
The students’ responses through the interview confirmed the findings collected from the ques-
tionnaire that the male students seemed to use fewer memory strategies than female students. Most
of the male students reported that they did not like to use gestures or body language to remember
information. In addition, they only read the old materials when they had to take the exam. Here is
an example of the responses:
“I remember by myself or I often use new words to make sentences in real context. Also, I did not
use body language. About review lesson, hmmm, I just do it when the test is coming”. (Male 1,
English translation)
In contrast, all of five female students said they have to remember what they learnt in English.
Their ways to remember information were abundant, including making sentence with new words,
reviewing the old materials, using notebooks, using sounds, images and sensation, etc.
“I usually make a humorous sentence with a new vocabulary that smartly helps me to memorize
vocabularies. When we want to effectively study, we should combine sounds, images and sensation”.
(Female 2, English translation)
“I usually use images and make sentences into a real context to memorize new words. Besides, I have
my own note book to write words which I will review after class”. (Female 4, English translation)
When researchers asked about the differences between males and females in the ways of memo-
rizing information, all of the participants agreed on the difference. They said that females studied
harder and reviewed the lesson more regularly while males were more interested in entertainment,
especially games. Some selected responses from participants are quoted below.
“To my view, females usually take note then they can review it at home because they personally
believe if they cannot answer teachers’ question, they will be underated and criticized”. (Female 3,
English translation)
“Men usually go home to play games and when they come for exams, they will begin to practice. On
the contrary, the girls study harder”. (Female 5, English translation)
“Men are often confident of their English skills, so they seldom look at the lessons, while the girls
will study hard and regularly review the lessons”. (Male 1, English translation)
Gender and the use of Cognitive strategy
Male and female students both successfully used cognitive strategies. Their most common
strategies to learn English were listening to music and viewing movies in order to develop their lis-
tening skills. Both male and female interviewees had confirmed these.
210 Như PhươngInteracción y Perspectiva. R evista de Trabajo S ocial V ol. 1 5 ( 1 ) : 2 0 2 5
“I talk to my friends sometimes. And to practice listening, I also watch English movies”. (Male 2,
English translation)
“I practice English by watching films, listening to music and reading book. I also look up words on
Cambridge and Oxford dictionary of which I repeat voice interpretation. It helps me to remember
longer”. (Female 1, English translation)
To answer the question “Do you think males and females practice English differently from
each other?”, the students said that females had the greatest potential to summarize and highlight
details. The fact was that 5 of females responded they all hightlighted important information. Fe-
males prefered to point out vital information using striking colours while males did not create
structures for input by that way.
“To me, highlight pens can set off information that helps I remember with no difficult. In addi-
tion, females will take care of details so they will be good at using color to highlight information”.
(Female 3, English translation)
“Males thinks using multicolored pens is fussy, time consuming and expensive”. (Male 1, English
translation)
In addition, in the manner they conveyed their thoughts, there was a disparity. Males mostly
found and generated opportunities for speaking and listening skills by attending class activities. In
contrast, females tended to express ideas on the interactive platform of social media due to their
characteristics of being shy and girly.
“Since I don’t have close friends who can read and comment in English, I know that they would
like to ignore. Second, my English is not adequate for me to openly publish”. (Male 2, English
translation)
“The boys actively participate in activities in the class because they want to experience, the girls are
shy and lack confidence”. (Male 4, English translation)
“Men are more active and less afraid at crowded, but women are thoughtful and shy that makes
they inactive”. (Female 1, English translation)
Gender and the use of Compensation strategy
The results revealed that females often used intelligent guessing when they didn’t know what
the other said. The reason was that they were ashamed of being judged by other people. However,
males often instantly filled their gap by asking other people for help.
“I’m trying to guess myself if it’s incorrect, then someone else is going to fix it. I am afraid to inquire
again, because I think that I will disrupt the conversation flow and be judged poorly”. (Female 2,
English translation)
“I will usually ask the friend to stop and ask. Because I want to understand at that moment, I will
understand the words and situation applied. And the girls will guess the meaning by themselves
and ignore it because of politeness and shyness”. (Male 1, English translation)
Both males and females used synonyms, simple terms and body language to solve and clarify
difficulties when they do not really know in English. Since males had a confidence in their skillful
speaking capacity, they rarely switched to mother tongue in speaking. On the other hand, females
preferred to switch to mother tongue when they faced difficulties in expressing their ideas.
“I talk to my friends sometimes. And to practice listening, I also watch English movies”. (Male 2,
English translation)
“I practice English by watching films, listening to music and reading book. I also look up words on
Cambridge and Oxford dictionary of which I repeat voice interpretation. It helps me to remember
longer”. (Female 1, English translation)
To answer the question “Do you think males and females practice English differently from
each other?”, the students said that females had the greatest potential to summarize and highlight
details. The fact was that 5 of females responded they all hightlighted important information. Fe-
males prefered to point out vital information using striking colours while males did not create
structures for input by that way.
“To me, highlight pens can set off information that helps I remember with no difficult. In addi-
tion, females will take care of details so they will be good at using color to highlight information”.
(Female 3, English translation)
“Males thinks using multicolored pens is fussy, time consuming and expensive”. (Male 1, English
translation)
In addition, in the manner they conveyed their thoughts, there was a disparity. Males mostly
found and generated opportunities for speaking and listening skills by attending class activities. In
contrast, females tended to express ideas on the interactive platform of social media due to their
characteristics of being shy and girly.
“Since I don’t have close friends who can read and comment in English, I know that they would
like to ignore. Second, my English is not adequate for me to openly publish”. (Male 2, English
translation)
“The boys actively participate in activities in the class because they want to experience, the girls are
shy and lack confidence”. (Male 4, English translation)
“Men are more active and less afraid at crowded, but women are thoughtful and shy that makes
they inactive”. (Female 1, English translation)
Gender and the use of Compensation strategy
The results revealed that females often used intelligent guessing when they didn’t know what
the other said. The reason was that they were ashamed of being judged by other people. However,
males often instantly filled their gap by asking other people for help.
“I’m trying to guess myself if it’s incorrect, then someone else is going to fix it. I am afraid to inquire
again, because I think that I will disrupt the conversation flow and be judged poorly”. (Female 2,
English translation)
“I will usually ask the friend to stop and ask. Because I want to understand at that moment, I will
understand the words and situation applied. And the girls will guess the meaning by themselves
and ignore it because of politeness and shyness”. (Male 1, English translation)
Both males and females used synonyms, simple terms and body language to solve and clarify
difficulties when they do not really know in English. Since males had a confidence in their skillful
speaking capacity, they rarely switched to mother tongue in speaking. On the other hand, females
preferred to switch to mother tongue when they faced difficulties in expressing their ideas.
Estrategias de aprendizaje de idiomas empleadas por estudiantes universitarios vietnamitas:
una comparación de género 211Vol. 15(1) enero-marzo 2025/ 196 - 218
“I will use simple words and synonyms to describe them incorporating body gestures.” (Male 3,
English translation)
“I will use similar words and combine with body language. If I talk in class, I will switch to Viet-
namese because the language is used to understand each other. Or I ask you for help”. (Female 4,
English translation)
Another difference between males and females in their use of compensation strategies was that
males did not change the topic even an unfamiliar task while females totally neglected complex and
unfamiliar topics and just involved in whatever they had an interesting.
“I won’t be afraid to talk about strange topics, I’ll try to describe as much as I can. I think the girls
won’t listen and move on to another topic on their own if it’s a topic you don’t care about”. (Male
1, English translation)
“Of course I will change the subject, since I don’t have much knowledge. When I say the topics I
don’t like, I won’t have anything to say. Instead, I should turn to the topics I already know”. (Fe-
male 1, English translation)
Gender and the use of Metacognitive strategy
In arranging and planning education, both males and females were successful. When they were
studying English, they often set a goal, then they intended precisely to accomplish it. In comparison
with males, females found more opportunities to communicate with other people to learn English,
such as peers and native populations. Even though teachers did not require them to do this, they
wished to develop their ability to speak.
“I often set big goals then I make detailed plans for each day”. (Male 5, English translation)
“I will set a long-term goal by year. I then will plan each month. I have found mechanics to practice
English with foreign teachers. I tend to talk to them to improve speaking skills and go places where
native people usually come to talk with them”. (Female 1, English translation)
In order to check the understanding in English learning process, females were recorded as a
good self-monitor and self-evaluator. They then could understand and enhance their weaknesses.
While some men were too confident about their knowledge, their learning process were rarely as-
sessed.
“I do not often analyze my own study because I know I do not have many problems. I also do not
evaluate my own progress”. (Male 3, English translation)
“I often analyze the difficulty and progress of learning a foreign language that helps me improve
better”. (Female 3, English translation)
In terms of concentrating, arranging and measuring their learning, most of them stated that
females worked hard to prepare and review lessons at home and males scarcely and hardly prepared
before class.
“Preparing the lesson, reviewing the article and finding out more information that the female will
stand out. Men will only find out information when he does not know it, if he only knows a little,
he will ignore it”. (Male 1, English translation)
“Women will often prepare lessons such as translating homework or taking notes for new lessons.
And the boys come to the class to sit and listen”. (Female 3, English translation)
una comparación de género 211Vol. 15(1) enero-marzo 2025/ 196 - 218
“I will use simple words and synonyms to describe them incorporating body gestures.” (Male 3,
English translation)
“I will use similar words and combine with body language. If I talk in class, I will switch to Viet-
namese because the language is used to understand each other. Or I ask you for help”. (Female 4,
English translation)
Another difference between males and females in their use of compensation strategies was that
males did not change the topic even an unfamiliar task while females totally neglected complex and
unfamiliar topics and just involved in whatever they had an interesting.
“I won’t be afraid to talk about strange topics, I’ll try to describe as much as I can. I think the girls
won’t listen and move on to another topic on their own if it’s a topic you don’t care about”. (Male
1, English translation)
“Of course I will change the subject, since I don’t have much knowledge. When I say the topics I
don’t like, I won’t have anything to say. Instead, I should turn to the topics I already know”. (Fe-
male 1, English translation)
Gender and the use of Metacognitive strategy
In arranging and planning education, both males and females were successful. When they were
studying English, they often set a goal, then they intended precisely to accomplish it. In comparison
with males, females found more opportunities to communicate with other people to learn English,
such as peers and native populations. Even though teachers did not require them to do this, they
wished to develop their ability to speak.
“I often set big goals then I make detailed plans for each day”. (Male 5, English translation)
“I will set a long-term goal by year. I then will plan each month. I have found mechanics to practice
English with foreign teachers. I tend to talk to them to improve speaking skills and go places where
native people usually come to talk with them”. (Female 1, English translation)
In order to check the understanding in English learning process, females were recorded as a
good self-monitor and self-evaluator. They then could understand and enhance their weaknesses.
While some men were too confident about their knowledge, their learning process were rarely as-
sessed.
“I do not often analyze my own study because I know I do not have many problems. I also do not
evaluate my own progress”. (Male 3, English translation)
“I often analyze the difficulty and progress of learning a foreign language that helps me improve
better”. (Female 3, English translation)
In terms of concentrating, arranging and measuring their learning, most of them stated that
females worked hard to prepare and review lessons at home and males scarcely and hardly prepared
before class.
“Preparing the lesson, reviewing the article and finding out more information that the female will
stand out. Men will only find out information when he does not know it, if he only knows a little,
he will ignore it”. (Male 1, English translation)
“Women will often prepare lessons such as translating homework or taking notes for new lessons.
And the boys come to the class to sit and listen”. (Female 3, English translation)
212 Như PhươngInteracción y Perspectiva. R evista de Trabajo S ocial V ol. 1 5 ( 1 ) : 2 0 2 5
Gender and the use of Affective strategy
Most females had committed that they felt nervous in English communication while males did
not feel the same. Besides, females also asked other people for recommendation.
“If it is a normal conversation, I do not worry. I only worry if the topic is difficult and I have to
present in crowded. When I am stressed, I usually reassure myself, listen to music and be alone”.
(Male 3, English translation)
“I do feel nervous when I speak English. I usually reassure myself”. (Female 4, English translation)
“I has concern with communicate in English. And often I will share and ask others for advice. I
love listening to music and sleeping to reduce stress”. (Interview 2)
Furthermore, all students tended to promote themselves, such as self-motivation. However,
they were less self-rewarded.
“I will reward myself when I get good results and feel I deserve it and help me grow”. (Male 4,
English translation)
“If I achieve something, I will reward myself. For example, I told myself that if I could reach the
aims, I would buy myself a dress. If not, I will be punished”. (Female 1, English translation)
“I do not reward myself when I get good results. I just use the goal as the motivation”. (Male 1,
English translation)
For the differences in regulating their emotion for minizing their anxiety, males had more self-
control. They had the ability to control the nonverbal language and the face expression. Meanwhile,
females freely shared their nervousness with other individuals. Females also shared their emotions
on social media.
“I think men are good at controlling anxiety, and women will show their nervousness through
gestures, attitudes and sharing”. (Male 5, English translation)
“Females often share feelings through social networks and often share personal stories to their best
friends. But few men do it”. (Male 4, English translation)
“Male worry, but they hides personal feelings. Women often share feelings on social network such as
photos and captions related to feelings”. (Female 2, English translation)
Gender and the use of Social strategy
Generally, both male and female students interactively and consciously asked teachers and
friends to repeat, slow down, explain and provide input throughout the learning process. Besides,
they could work with whether familiar and unusual friends.
“If I do not understand what my teacher says, I will ask him to repeat”. (Male 1, English transla-
tion)
“I can cooperate with both inside and outside class and with strangers”. (Female 1, English trans-
lation)
However, in the way they cooperated with other individuals, there were significant differences.
Most women would prefer to work in opposite sex groups, so they could get more ideas from mul-
tiple backgrounds.
Gender and the use of Affective strategy
Most females had committed that they felt nervous in English communication while males did
not feel the same. Besides, females also asked other people for recommendation.
“If it is a normal conversation, I do not worry. I only worry if the topic is difficult and I have to
present in crowded. When I am stressed, I usually reassure myself, listen to music and be alone”.
(Male 3, English translation)
“I do feel nervous when I speak English. I usually reassure myself”. (Female 4, English translation)
“I has concern with communicate in English. And often I will share and ask others for advice. I
love listening to music and sleeping to reduce stress”. (Interview 2)
Furthermore, all students tended to promote themselves, such as self-motivation. However,
they were less self-rewarded.
“I will reward myself when I get good results and feel I deserve it and help me grow”. (Male 4,
English translation)
“If I achieve something, I will reward myself. For example, I told myself that if I could reach the
aims, I would buy myself a dress. If not, I will be punished”. (Female 1, English translation)
“I do not reward myself when I get good results. I just use the goal as the motivation”. (Male 1,
English translation)
For the differences in regulating their emotion for minizing their anxiety, males had more self-
control. They had the ability to control the nonverbal language and the face expression. Meanwhile,
females freely shared their nervousness with other individuals. Females also shared their emotions
on social media.
“I think men are good at controlling anxiety, and women will show their nervousness through
gestures, attitudes and sharing”. (Male 5, English translation)
“Females often share feelings through social networks and often share personal stories to their best
friends. But few men do it”. (Male 4, English translation)
“Male worry, but they hides personal feelings. Women often share feelings on social network such as
photos and captions related to feelings”. (Female 2, English translation)
Gender and the use of Social strategy
Generally, both male and female students interactively and consciously asked teachers and
friends to repeat, slow down, explain and provide input throughout the learning process. Besides,
they could work with whether familiar and unusual friends.
“If I do not understand what my teacher says, I will ask him to repeat”. (Male 1, English transla-
tion)
“I can cooperate with both inside and outside class and with strangers”. (Female 1, English trans-
lation)
However, in the way they cooperated with other individuals, there were significant differences.
Most women would prefer to work in opposite sex groups, so they could get more ideas from mul-
tiple backgrounds.
Estrategias de aprendizaje de idiomas empleadas por estudiantes universitarios vietnamitas:
una comparación de género 213Vol. 15(1) enero-marzo 2025/ 196 - 218
“I want to cooperate with men. I think men will focus on making it more effective when cooperat-
ing, while the female friends are usually procrastinating. Because of the opposite sex, the ideas will
be more diverse”. (Female 1, English translation)
“I want to work with men because they don’t get distracted”. (Female 5, English translation)
For male students, they had different viewpoints on this issue. Some of them preferred to work
in groups with women because of different frames of reference while some liked to collaborate with
the same gender because of matching thought. Some of males only cooperated with other people in
addiction as teachers require.
“I like working in groups because working with many people will learn many things. I prefer to
work with girls because I’m a man so I learn from female friends”. (Male 3, English translation)
“I like to work in pair, because the group has too many people and many distracting ideas. And
girls are difficult and have conflicting so I prefer work with same gender.” (Male 5, English trans-
lation)
In communication, both of males and females considered feelings or thoughts of others. Fe-
males gave implicit feedback to other people because they respected their opinions and did not
want to hurt emotions of other people. They want to empathize with their mates, so they usually
use tenderhearted words when they make a statement. In contrast, male provided other people with
direct feedback but also care for the feelings of others.
“When you are willing to absorb what I point to, I will continue to help you. If not, I won’t help
anymore”. (Male 1, English translation)
“…. I will indirectly, they just say the same matter so they know. Because speaking out too bluntly
will easily offend and hurt friends”. (Female 3, English translation)
All of them agreed that gender affected on the ways they collaborated with other people. Here
were some evidences:
“I think working with women will have many new ideas, but there will be many disagreements.
Man can normally work with someone who they do not like, but woman cannot.”
“Gender does affect teamwork. Men will give direct opinions, while women will give more indirect
opinions”. (Female 1, English translation)
CONCLUSION
This study investigated the use of LLSs among first-year undergraduates at a university in
Vietnam and explored the significant differences in the use of LLSs based on gender. In addition,
this study also found out whether the students’ perceptions of gender influenced their LLSs or not.
Generally, the descriptive statistics revealed that in all categories of LLSs, except for the compensa-
tion strategies, female students significantly utilized LLSs with much greater frequency than male
students. In other words, there was a wide disparity with the use of LLSs among students between
genders.
Additionally, the results also showed that the most frequent LLSs used by both male and fe-
male students were social strategy. While memory strategies were the least used strategies of males,
compensation strategies were the least used by females. Females used more indirect strategies than
una comparación de género 213Vol. 15(1) enero-marzo 2025/ 196 - 218
“I want to cooperate with men. I think men will focus on making it more effective when cooperat-
ing, while the female friends are usually procrastinating. Because of the opposite sex, the ideas will
be more diverse”. (Female 1, English translation)
“I want to work with men because they don’t get distracted”. (Female 5, English translation)
For male students, they had different viewpoints on this issue. Some of them preferred to work
in groups with women because of different frames of reference while some liked to collaborate with
the same gender because of matching thought. Some of males only cooperated with other people in
addiction as teachers require.
“I like working in groups because working with many people will learn many things. I prefer to
work with girls because I’m a man so I learn from female friends”. (Male 3, English translation)
“I like to work in pair, because the group has too many people and many distracting ideas. And
girls are difficult and have conflicting so I prefer work with same gender.” (Male 5, English trans-
lation)
In communication, both of males and females considered feelings or thoughts of others. Fe-
males gave implicit feedback to other people because they respected their opinions and did not
want to hurt emotions of other people. They want to empathize with their mates, so they usually
use tenderhearted words when they make a statement. In contrast, male provided other people with
direct feedback but also care for the feelings of others.
“When you are willing to absorb what I point to, I will continue to help you. If not, I won’t help
anymore”. (Male 1, English translation)
“…. I will indirectly, they just say the same matter so they know. Because speaking out too bluntly
will easily offend and hurt friends”. (Female 3, English translation)
All of them agreed that gender affected on the ways they collaborated with other people. Here
were some evidences:
“I think working with women will have many new ideas, but there will be many disagreements.
Man can normally work with someone who they do not like, but woman cannot.”
“Gender does affect teamwork. Men will give direct opinions, while women will give more indirect
opinions”. (Female 1, English translation)
CONCLUSION
This study investigated the use of LLSs among first-year undergraduates at a university in
Vietnam and explored the significant differences in the use of LLSs based on gender. In addition,
this study also found out whether the students’ perceptions of gender influenced their LLSs or not.
Generally, the descriptive statistics revealed that in all categories of LLSs, except for the compensa-
tion strategies, female students significantly utilized LLSs with much greater frequency than male
students. In other words, there was a wide disparity with the use of LLSs among students between
genders.
Additionally, the results also showed that the most frequent LLSs used by both male and fe-
male students were social strategy. While memory strategies were the least used strategies of males,
compensation strategies were the least used by females. Females used more indirect strategies than
214 Như PhươngInteracción y Perspectiva. R evista de Trabajo S ocial V ol. 1 5 ( 1 ) : 2 0 2 5
males. Regarding each strategy category use, the results indicated that gender differences were not
significant in the three LLS categories: cognitive, compensation and affective; however, there were
statistically significant differences between male and female students in their use of memory, meta-
cognitive and social. In addition, the findings from the interview also revealed that the students’
gender perceptions had a great influence on their use of LLSs
BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES
• Anderson, J. R. (1985). Cognitive psychology and its implications. New York: Freeman.
• Aslan, O. (2009). The role of gender and language learning strategies in learning English.
(Master’s thesis, Middle East Technical University, Turkey).
• Beck, C. D. (2014). Antecedents of servant leadership: A mixed methods study. Journal of Leader-
ship &. Organizational Studies, 21(3), 299- 314. doi:10.1177/1548051814529993
• Burns, A. (2003). Collaborative action research for English language teachers. United Kingdom:
Cambridge University Press.
• Cao, T. H. (2009). Gender differences in language learning strategy use. CamTESOL Confer-
ence on English Language Teaching, 5, 262-277. Retrieve from: https://www.researchgate.net/
profile/Noriah_Ismail/publication/256498357_The_Use_of_Effective_Reading_Strategies_
to_Improve_Reading_Comprehension/links/0deec52326a92e8cad000000.pdf#page=274
• Chamot, A. U. (2004). Issues in language learning strategy research and teaching. ElectronicJournal of
Foreign Language Teaching, 1(1), 14-26. Retrieved from https://oheg.org/full_396.pdf
• Chamot, A. U. (2008). Teaching learning strategies. Pearson Education, Inc: Longman
• Chamot, A. U., & Kupper, L. (1989). Learning strategies in foreign language instruction. For-
eign Language Annals, 26(3), 13-24. doi:10.1111/j.1944-9720.1989.tb03138.x
• Chang, C., Liu, S., & Lee, Y. (2007). A study of language learning strategies used by college
EFL learners in Taiwan. Language Learning, 3, 235-262. Retrieved from: http://www.mdu.
edu.tw/~ged/other%20download/bulletin/20070319/11.pdf
• Cohen, A. D., & Ernesto, M. (2007). Language learning Strategies: Thirty Years of Research and
Practice. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
• Cohen, A., & Macaro, J. (2007). Language learner strategies: 30 years of research and practice.
United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
• Cole, P. M. (1997). The ETS Gender Study: How Females and Males Perform in Educational
Settings. Princeton: Educational Testing Service.
• Creswell, J. W. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods Ap-
proaches. United State: Sage Publications.
• Deary, I. J., Strand, S., Smith, P., & Fernandes, C. (2007). Intelligence and educational achieve-
ment. Intelligence, 35, 13–21. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.02.001
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sity Press.
• Duckworth, A., & Seligman, M. (2005). Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting aca-
demic performance of adolescents. Psychol. Sci. 16(12), 939–944. doi:10.1111/j.1467-
9280.2005.01641.x
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cal type on adult language learning strategies. The Modern Language Journal, 73(1), 1-13.
doi:10.2307/327261
males. Regarding each strategy category use, the results indicated that gender differences were not
significant in the three LLS categories: cognitive, compensation and affective; however, there were
statistically significant differences between male and female students in their use of memory, meta-
cognitive and social. In addition, the findings from the interview also revealed that the students’
gender perceptions had a great influence on their use of LLSs
BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES
• Anderson, J. R. (1985). Cognitive psychology and its implications. New York: Freeman.
• Aslan, O. (2009). The role of gender and language learning strategies in learning English.
(Master’s thesis, Middle East Technical University, Turkey).
• Beck, C. D. (2014). Antecedents of servant leadership: A mixed methods study. Journal of Leader-
ship &. Organizational Studies, 21(3), 299- 314. doi:10.1177/1548051814529993
• Burns, A. (2003). Collaborative action research for English language teachers. United Kingdom:
Cambridge University Press.
• Cao, T. H. (2009). Gender differences in language learning strategy use. CamTESOL Confer-
ence on English Language Teaching, 5, 262-277. Retrieve from: https://www.researchgate.net/
profile/Noriah_Ismail/publication/256498357_The_Use_of_Effective_Reading_Strategies_
to_Improve_Reading_Comprehension/links/0deec52326a92e8cad000000.pdf#page=274
• Chamot, A. U. (2004). Issues in language learning strategy research and teaching. ElectronicJournal of
Foreign Language Teaching, 1(1), 14-26. Retrieved from https://oheg.org/full_396.pdf
• Chamot, A. U. (2008). Teaching learning strategies. Pearson Education, Inc: Longman
• Chamot, A. U., & Kupper, L. (1989). Learning strategies in foreign language instruction. For-
eign Language Annals, 26(3), 13-24. doi:10.1111/j.1944-9720.1989.tb03138.x
• Chang, C., Liu, S., & Lee, Y. (2007). A study of language learning strategies used by college
EFL learners in Taiwan. Language Learning, 3, 235-262. Retrieved from: http://www.mdu.
edu.tw/~ged/other%20download/bulletin/20070319/11.pdf
• Cohen, A. D., & Ernesto, M. (2007). Language learning Strategies: Thirty Years of Research and
Practice. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
• Cohen, A., & Macaro, J. (2007). Language learner strategies: 30 years of research and practice.
United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
• Cole, P. M. (1997). The ETS Gender Study: How Females and Males Perform in Educational
Settings. Princeton: Educational Testing Service.
• Creswell, J. W. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods Ap-
proaches. United State: Sage Publications.
• Deary, I. J., Strand, S., Smith, P., & Fernandes, C. (2007). Intelligence and educational achieve-
ment. Intelligence, 35, 13–21. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.02.001
• Dornyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics. United Kingdom: Oxford Univer-
sity Press.
• Duckworth, A., & Seligman, M. (2005). Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting aca-
demic performance of adolescents. Psychol. Sci. 16(12), 939–944. doi:10.1111/j.1467-
9280.2005.01641.x
• Ehrman, M., & Oxford, R. (1989). Effects of sex differences, career choice, and psychologi-
cal type on adult language learning strategies. The Modern Language Journal, 73(1), 1-13.
doi:10.2307/327261
Estrategias de aprendizaje de idiomas empleadas por estudiantes universitarios vietnamitas:
una comparación de género 215Vol. 15(1) enero-marzo 2025/ 196 - 218
• Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. United Kingdom: Oxford University
Press.
• Ellis, R. (2008). A typology of written corrective feedback types. ELT Journal, 63(2), 97-107.
doi:10.1093/elt/ccn023
• Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second language learning.
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worldwide with the ESL/EFL version of the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL).
System, 23(1), 1-23. doi:10.1016/0346-251X(94)00047-A
• Oxford, R., & Crookall, D. (1989). Language learning strategies: methods, findings, and ins-
tructional implications. Modern Language Journal, 73(4), 404–419. doi:10.2307/326876
• Oxford, R.L. (2008). Hero with a thousand faces: Learning autonomy, learning strategies and
learning tactics in independent language learning. In Hurd, S. and Lewis, T (Eds), Language
learning strategies in independent settings, (pp. 41-63). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
• Pallant, J. (2007). SPSS: survival manual. Sydney: Allen & Ulwin.
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tb02343.x
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rential item functioning. The Journal of Asia TEFL, 8(4), 175-203.
• Pavicic, T. V. (2008). Vocabulary Learning Strategy and Foreign Language Acquisition. Cleve-
don, UK: Multilingual Matters.
• Puteh, M., Zin, Z. M., & Ismail, I. (2016). Reading performance of Malaysian students across
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doi:10.2307/3586011.
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ve from: http://www.tesl-ej.org/wordpress/issues/volume7/ej26/ej26a3/
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and Individividual Different, 48(4), 481–486. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.11.0287.
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Language Review, 31(4), 304-318. doi:10.3138/cmlr.31.4.304
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Transition to school: the role of kindergarten children’s behavior regulation. Learning Individi-
vidual Different, 19(4), 561–566. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2009.07.006
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tercanlioglu.html
• Tezcan, S., & Deneme, S. (2015). A study on language learning strategy use of young Turkish
learners. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 7(1), 42-48. doi: doi:10.17507/jltr.0701.05
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input in the native language and a foreign language. Applied Language Learning, 8(1), 43-73.
Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ552194
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uploads/2013/12/1124-1128.pdf
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learning strategies. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 3(2), 77- 88. doi:10.17509/ijal.
v3i2.270.
• Vlckova, K., Berger, J., & Volkle, M. (2013). Classification theories of foreign language
learning strategies: an exploratory analysis. Studia paedagogica, 18(4), 93-113. doi:10.5817/
SP2013-4-6.
• Weinstein, C. E., & Mayer, R. E. (1983). The teaching of learning strategies. Washington: ERIC
Document Reproduction Services.
• Weinstein, C. E., and Mayer, R. E. (1986). The teaching of learning strategies. In M. R. Wit-
trock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (third Ed.). New York: Macmillan
• Wenden, A. L. (1987). Conceptual background and utility. In A. L. Wenden & J. Rubin
(Eds.), Learner strategies in language learning, (pp. 3-13). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
• Wharton, G. (2000). Language learning strategy use of bilingual foreign language learnersin
Singapore. Language Learning, 50(2), 203-243. doi:10.1111/0023-8333.00117
• Young, D. J., & Oxford, R. (1997). A gender-related analysis of strategies used to process
input in the native language and a foreign language. Applied Language Learning, 8(1), 43-73.
Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ552194
• Yunus, M. M., Sulaiman, N. A., & Embi, M. A. (2013). Malaysian gifted students’ use of
English language learning strategies. English Language Teaching, 6(4), 97-109. doi:10.5539/
elt.v6n4p97
• Zoghi, M., Kazemi, A., & Kalani, A. (2013). The effect of gender on language learning. Jour-
nal of Novel Applied Sciences, 2(4), 1124-1128. Retrieve from: http://jnasci.org/wp-content/
uploads/2013/12/1124-1128.pdf