Opción, Año 33, No. 85 (2018): 551-581
ISSN 1012-1587 / ISSNe: 2477-9385
The role of
Baikonur
in the context of military-
political cooperation between Kazakhstan
and Russia
Ramilya Chukalova
Academy of public
administration under the President of the Republic
of Kazakhstan, Kazakhstan, 010000 Astana city, 33 Abai Str.
rami_lay85@mail.ru
Zarina Kakenova
L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University
Kazakhstan,
010000 Astana city, 2 Satpayev Str. z_kakenova@mail.ru
Almagul Kushpaeva
Sh. Ualikhanov Kokshetau State University, Kazakhstan,
020000 Kokshetau, 76, Abay Street kushpaevaab@mail.ru
Amirzhan Alpeisov
L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University
Kazakhstan, 010000 Astana
city, 2 Satpayev Str.
alpeissov@mail.ru
Galina Kakenova
L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University
Kazakhstan,
010000 Astana city, 2 Satpayev Str. ayazhani09@list.ru
Abstract
The military partnership between Russia and Kazakhstan illustrates the multifaceted and mutually
beneficial nature of relations between this
two
countries. In particular
the joint
use of
the
unique complex
“Baikonur”
is considered. Russia‟s leading role
is shown in the
preparation of Kazakhstan‟s own space program. All these issues are considered on the basis of an analysis of the legal framework for cooperation
between the two states in the use of the Baikonur Cosmodrome. Particular
attention is paid to the problem of environmental
safety of the territory of the Republic of Kazakhstan
associated with the operation of the Baikonur Cosmodrome.
Keywords: Kazakhstan, Cosmodrome, Baikonur, environmental safety, space program.
Recibido: 10-01-2018 Aceptado: 09-03-2018
El papel de Baikonur
en el contexto de la cooperación militar-política entre Kazajistán y Rusia
Resumen
La asociación militar entre Rusia y Kazajstán
ilustra la naturaleza multifacética y mutuamente beneficiosa de las relaciones entre estos dos
países. En particular, se considera
el uso conjunto del complejo único "Baikonur". El papel principal de Rusia se muestra en la preparación
del propio programa espacial de Kazajstán. Todos estos temas se consideran
sobre la base de un análisis del marco legal para la cooperación
entre los dos estados en el uso del Cosmódromo de Baikonur. Se presta especial
atención al problema de la seguridad ambiental del territorio de la República de Kazajstán relacionado con el funcionamiento del
cosmódromo de Baikonur.
Palabras clave: Kazajstán, Cosmódromo, Baikonur, seguridad
ambiental, programa espacial.
1.
INTRODUCTION
Baikonur is the largest and in its way unique space harbor, which started the first launches and flights into space. At present, manned launches, missile launches, satellites,
and etc. are being carried out here. After gaining independence by Kazakhstan,
it became quite logical and
possible to develop its domestic space programs, but it should be noted
that this sector is at the same low level. The space center was leased, so it
is not possible to carry out independent
space launches, but Kazakhstan
can
take part in individual programs and get economic benefits from
commercial launches. It is important to emphasize
that the presence of
Baikonur brings us not only positive moments
in the form of economic
benefits and world fame, but also a lot of negative consequences that arise after the accidents of Russian missiles and damage to the ecology
of
the region.
The relevance of the problem of international
importance to the
cooperation of Russia and Kazakhstan
on
the use of the Baikonur
Cosmodromehas been repeatedly stressed in the speeches of the Presidents of these states, since it has great practical significance for the development
of both the space and the national economy of both countries. Today, the exploration of outer space is
considered more as a study and use of
achievements in
the military sphere.
Hence the military and
political cooperation between Kazakhstan and Russia has a
positive trend, and such cooperation between states on the Baikonur Cosmodromeis unique.
In this article author will consider the issues of cooperation of the Republic of Kazakhstan with the Russian Federation regarding the Baikonur Cosmodrome,
highlight the pros and cons of this union. It will be
determined the prerequisites for cooperation between Russia and Kazakhstan in the field of space exploration,
will be analyzed the existing
difficulties in using the Cosmodrome after the collapse of the USSR, as
well
as
environmental safety in the process of mastering outer
space.Based
on the analysis of available Russian and Kazakh sources, as well as the regulatory and legal framework, author will try to summarize the international experience of cooperation between the two states on the
use
of the Baikonur Cosmodrome, and outline the stages of cooperation.
This article analyzes priority directions of military-political cooperation
between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Kazakhstan in the field of space exploration.
2. METHODOLOGY
Diplomatic
relations between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Kazakhstan were established
on
October 22, 1992. Bilateral
relations and collaboration rest on a framework of solid international
treaty (more
than
300 treaties and
agreements have
been
employed).
Kazakh-Russian Intergovernmental Commission for Cooperation where function Subcommittees
on "Baikonur" Complex, Transport, Frontier Cooperation, Investments and Military-Technical Cooperation was proven
in 1997. Military/Technical
collaboration of Russia and Kazakhstan has especially
close character. The methodological foundations of the article
are
the principles
of historical science: historicism, objectivity,
comprehensive
study, reliability, which allowed to see international
processes in their real development and interrelations, to conduct a comprehensive analysis and assessment of specific facts. Problem- chronological,
comparative, quantitative content analysis, SWOT-analysis will be used as well.
2.1. The main part: Periodization of the
cooperation stages (the
first stage or Soviet period 1957-1991)
Since the construction
and official launch
of the Baikonur
Cosmodrome more than 60 years have passed, if we analyze this time
interval, then it is possible
to break it into unique stages: the initial or the
Soviet stage of 1957-1991, the transitional period - 1991-2004,and the
current stage of 2004-2022.
On October 4, 1957, for the first time an
artificial
object, Sputnik, was placed in orbit around the Earth. A few
months later it became known that this satellite was launched from
the
steppes of Kazakhstan, in an unknown place – Baikonur. A lot of work
and
investments were invested to turn the deserted corner of the Kazakh steppe into the largest civil and military space launch pad in the world.
For a long time Baikonur
was
closed
to
outsiders. The end
of confrontation between the West and the USSR allowed
to fully
appreciate the achievements,
tragedies, failures and prospects for the existence and activities
of
the Baikonur space platform. In 1954, the USSR decided to
start the production of an intercontinental ballistic missile, a need arose
for a new launch pad outside Kapustin Yar (near Volgograd) built in 1946.
The choice fell
at the end
of 1954 on the Kyzyl-Orda region in the
Republic of Kazakhstan,
to be more precise, in the vicinity
of a small
railway
town of Turatam. The first squad, consisting of about 30 soldiers,
arrived in Turatam on January 12, 1955.Its role was to conduct initial land
surveys and prepare premises where various groups of workers would be
located. Outside the launch
pad, the task was to build two radio control
systems, nine monitoring centers, telemetry and trajectory tracking and, of
course, an operational support infrastructure. But the earliest task was to create an automobile
and railway network. As Jacques Villain (1999)
noted, the sent teams
lived on the banks
of
the Syrdarya River, about 30
km
from the Turatam. In order to
preserve secrecy from the West between the railway station and the Syrdarya, the construction
of the first wooden houses in the village, originally called Zarya, then No. 10 or Tashkent 50
began. Since January 28, 1958, it was called Leninsk. This city was to
become the heart of Baikonur (Villain, 1996).
On November 1, 1955, after six months of getting started the work,
an important milestone was reached: the completion of the entire laying of the railway and the road network. Then the concreting of the starting table
began, and a year later the
State
Commission announced
its official
opening of the base. This happened
a few weeks after the first launch
of SS6, which occurred on May 15, 1957. The Baikonur Commodore
is located 2100 km from Moscow, 160 km east of the Aral Sea, about 800
km
west of Tashkent and 370 km south-west of the small town of
Baikonur. To confuse the West, the Soviet officials who were required to
register the first flight of the cosmonaut - Gagarin in 1961 was decided to give the Cosmodrome the name Baikonur, rather than the Turatam. Soviet
disinformation tactics reached
the pointers installation with the
name Baikonur at the entrance to the Cosmodrome. At the same time, various
Soviet publications on space always gave the coordinates of the base map
as 47.4 ° N-63.4 ° E, and the real coordinates
were - 45.6 ° N-63.4 ° E
(Villain, 1996). Thus, two objects were built, one was located directly in
Baikonur, which was a protected model,
and
the Cosmodrome in the town of Turatam, from where all the launches were made.
After the launch of the Vostok-1 rocket with Yuri Gagarin on April
12, 1961, the name “Baikonur” was assigned
to
the operating
Cosmodrome (Skvorzov, 2004). The Baikonur apogee coincided with the
space activities of the former Soviet Union and covers the period from
1976 to 1986.This was the time when about 150 operational Soviet
satellites were in orbit, of which 80-90% were intended for military use.
In
individual years, the total number of launches of spacecraft reached
100, or was once in three or four days. It should be noted that about 60%
of
these launches took place at the space base in Plesetsk,
and
not at Baikonur (Villain, 1996).
The Baikonur complex includes a Cosmodrome
and
a city. The area of the complex is 6717 km² (which is approximately
equal to 2.5 squares in Moscow
after the expansion of the territory). The territory of the Cosmodrome includes 12 launching complexes, six of which are in operation;11 assembly
and testing buildings in which 39 technical complexes for assembling, testing and prelaunch preparation
of launch vehicles, upper stages and space vehicles are located; two refueling
stations, a universal filling station and a technical filling station for refueling spacecraft and upper stages with rocket fuel components
and
compressed gas; a measuring
complex with a computer center and an
oxygen-nitrogen plant with a total capacity of up to 200 tons of cryogenic products per day. The Cosmodrome
supplies the developed power supply
network: more than 600 transformer substations and 6000 kilometers
of power lines. The infrastructure also includes two airfields of the first class, more than 400 kilometers
of
railways and 1,000 kilometers of highways,
and
2,500 kilometers of communication lines (Skvorzov, 1998).
2.2. The second stage (1991-2004)
The second stage was characterized by the formation of space activities of
Kazakhstan. 1991-1993 are
considered to
be a crisis
for Baikonur. After
the collapse
of
the USSR, the
Cosmodrome actually became
part
of Kazakhstan. But
in 1994,
an
agreement was
signed
between Russia and Kazakhstan, according to which Russia will operate the Cosmodrome for an annual rent. Initially, the lease period was 20
years. In 1997, the phased transfer of the spaceport facilities from the
Russian Ministry of Defense to the Federal Space Agency was started. In
2004, the term was extended until 2050. Russia continues to rent Baikonur and in parallel builds new
special space objects on its
territory (Bjornerud,
2004). As known, in
the signed
agreement between the Russian
Federation and the Republic of Kazakhstan as
of May 25, 1992, the
parties agreed on cooperation
in the field of fundamental scientific research, in which the priority role was assigned to the joint use of outer space on the basis of the scientific and technical potential
of the Baikonur
Cosmodrome. This was an important decision, since after the collapse of the USSR and the formation of a new sovereign state of Kazakhstan, the situation at the Cosmodrome
also changed.In particular, in
fact, submitting to the military space forces of the Russian Federation, it legally became the property of Kazakhstan (Bjornerud, 2004). In this regard,
problems arose between the two states, primarily due to the fact that the
republic
did
not have its own space program,
scientific and technical personnel, the necessary funding for maintaining a unique complex, etc. Due to these problems, Kazakhstan was forced to lease the spaceport to
Russia for 20 years, which in turn, based on uneasy negotiations
with the
republic, decided to build its own Cosmodrome in the area of Plesetsk.
However,
the implementation of this
program required
a
long period
of time, large financial injections and
the training of
highly
qualified personnel (Villain, 1996). And the uniqueness
of the Baikonur Cosmodrome was that it could
launch
all existing types of
launch
vehicles, and in all its scientific and technical characteristics it was the
only Cosmodrome in the world (BJORNERUD, 2004). In turn, the leadership of
Kazakhstan began
preparations with the
help of
Russia
create its own space program. In particular,
the treaty of May 25, 1992
began, in which the third article stated that “the coordination of scientific and industrial activities in the preparation and implementation
of space programs, as well as the use of space technologies in the interests of science and the national economy,
are
carried out by space research
agencies of the Republic of Kazakhstan
and the Russian Space Agency”
(Mansurov, et al., 2004). This has saved the unique Cosmodrome, which has great international significance, taking into account the fact that in the
modern world the space problem is of paramount importance. In this connection it is necessary to emphasize that at present the space industry
is one
of the most
priority and knowledge-intensive areas
of human activity. Participation
in space activities largely determines the international
prestige of any
state, its economic and scientific and
technical power. Many of the most important
directions of the national economy, not to
mention economic and military-strategic, are already
unthinkable without
the use of special space systems. Their use in many
cases
becomes
economically profitable.
The modern
development of space activity testifies to the desire of the majority of states to strengthen their space potential. Among them, Russia and Kazakhstan occupy an
honorable place, which have priority
in the international space sphere. In particular, one of the most important
priorities, for example, for
Kazakhstan is the development
of cooperation with Russia, involving the
implementation of joint space projects. This allowed Kazakhstan, together
with Russia, to enter the world market of space launch services, create a
technological base for the design and manufacture of spacecraft elements
and
target onboard equipment, expand the effective participation
of Kazakhstani specialists
in the operation
of the facilities of the world‟s largest Cosmodrome. In this regard, it should be noted that in the world
practice there is no experience of renting a part of the territory of another state
by
one
state, similar to the
practice of lease
by Russia
of the Baikonur complex. Russia and Kazakhstan have created the necessary legal framework for the effective development
of
international space law. In 1994, an Agreement
was signed on the basic principles and conditions for the use of this Cosmodrome. Under the agreement of December 23,
1995, for the lease period, the Kazakh city Baikonur was given the status
corresponding
to the status of a Russian city of federal significance, but
with a special regime for the operation of facilities, enterprises
and
organizations, as well as citizens‟ residence. All the above-mentioned
agreements were the beginning
of the formation
of an international legal
framework for the Baikonur space complex.
If we consider the statistics on the launches in different stages,
from the Baikonur in the period from 1957 to the end of 1993, about 950
take-offs of the
satellites-launchers were performed-an average of 26
launches per year or more than two per month.In 1987, there were 45
launches.In 1993, the annual launch capacity of the CIS was 230, and the actual number of launches was only 47. In 1994, there were 49, that is
50% of what was in 1976.1993, 212 three-and four-stage protons and 21
Zenit rockets were launched from Baikonur.The
remaining launches is about 700 -
included various versions of the
Zemiorka, Cyclone and Cosmos missiles and two Energia launches. Among
the Zemiorka launches, 77 were engaged in manned flights (between 1961 and 1993), of which
about
90% conducted using
three
versions of
the “Soyuz”
spacecraft were. It should also be noted that on March 17, 1988, Baikonur
hosted the 3000th launch in the world. Its task was to place in the orbit of
the
Indian remote sensing satellite
IRS 1A.The statistics for launching
missiles are more difficult to establish. From 1957 to the end of 1992,
1100 ballistic missiles were tested at Baikonur.
According to ITAR-TASS, during the operation of the Baikonur
from October 4, 1957 to February 25, 2002, the number of successful launches was 1077, partially
successful - 35, emergency. In 50 years, more than 1500 space vehicles for various purposes,
about 100
intercontinental ballistic missiles were launched from Baikonur, more than
130 domestic and foreign cosmonauts started to orbit. In addition, in its
60th anniversary - in 2015, 18 launch vehicles were launched from the
launch site, in the second place was Cape Canaveral
Space Center - 17 launches per year, the third - the Guiana Space Center with 12 launches
per
year. The transitional stage is a stage characterized as complicated. Kazakhstan
was
not ready to provide the Cosmodrome neither financially
nor technically. The question arose how not to let “die” and stand up to
Baikonur. The economic position of Moscow had to be changed to the status of a tenant. Since 1994, the Russian Federation has rented Baikonur
for $115 million a year. At this stage, Kazakhstan and Russia had to “learn” to cooperate
or “divide” the Cosmodrome. The colossal work was done, it should be noted that there is no such precedent
that is observed
around the above object.
2.3. The third stage (2004 -
2022)
January 9, 2004, after the signing in Astana of an agreement between the two states on the development of cooperation on the effective
use
of the Baikonur complex a new stage of cooperation between the
states began. This document fixed
the
term extension of the lease. On
July
3, 2005, Russia and Kazakhstan
got a long-term agreement for the rent of Baikonur by Russian Federation. The Russia agreed to pay $120 million
for the rent of the space center, some more million
dollars were required
per
year for the maintenance and development of the facility. Despite
existence of this text, five years later, Russian space officials
still complained about various stumbling blocks in the usage of Baikonur for
the
goals of the Russian space program. In the September 2007, a crash of the Proton rocket in the Karaganda Region
occasioned in a twomonth ban
on all missions of the Russian workhorse launcher and in a $62 million
compensation bill from the Kazakhstan. Only on May 8, 2010, Kazakh president Nursultan Nazarbaev ratified an agreement with Russia on joint operation
of Baikonur. As many as 60 interim agreements, covering
various aspects of the Russian-Kazakh cooperation on Baikonur, had been
required in between. Considering
the situation around Baikonur today we can find the interesting facts as: the mayor of the city is appointed by decrees of two presidents - Kazakhstani and Russian.Both laws are in force there. Law enforcement agencies of both states operate smoothly there, two vessels, two military commissariats, two registry offices and two currencies in the process.And most importantly interesting - there live citizens of Russia, and citizens of Kazakhstan.
One of the advantages for Kazakhstan is that over the next few years, the republic intends to launch two more satellites,
and the country will immediately enter an elite club from 25 countries that have two or more satellites in orbit. In the framework of Kazakh-Russian cooperation,
the
Baiterek project was developed. The Baiterek
rocket and space complex will be built on the basis of the infrastructure of Zenit complex.
Within the framework
of the joint project, Russia will work to create a medium-sized
Soyuz-5 medium-weight carrier
rocket
with
a
carrying
capacity of up to 17 tons, and Kazakhstan will repair and modernize the Zenit-M launch and technical complex.The
project will allow Kazakhstan to provide independently space launch services. The first launch of the
missile from the Baiterek complex
is planned in 2022 (Baiterek missile
complex will be built on the basis of “Zenith” ..., 2017). According to (Mansurov,
et al., 2004), the Baiterek project will become the starting point that will allow Kazakhstan to integrate into the system of the world
economy and become a real space power (Space Industry in Kazakhstan,
2014).Nowadays
the active work is being done to attract partners for the provision of launch services and training specialists. As Roskosmos and its Kazakhstan
partners suggested that the United Arab Emirates
(UAE) Space Agency uses the capabilities of the Cosmodrome. The
space agency of the UAE and Roskosmos stated a corporation
plan
to create a joint technical committee for the implementation of space projects. In 2018 - 17
launches of carrier rockets from Baikonur are planned.
3.
ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY
With the existing advantages
as the rent, the growth of the country‟s authority as a space state and the possibility
of applying scientific achievements in everyday life, the issue of environmental safety
of
the Kazakhstani territory, connected with the operation
of
this Cosmodrome, remains urgent, especially in view of the fact that with about 70% of all launches
of Russian
spacecraft were made at Baikonur.
As a result, the area where the separating parts fall occupies about 4
million hectares. These facts could lead to the possible explosions
and contamination of significant areas of the country with environmentally harmful waste rocket engines. In particular, after contamination of the
terrain with fuel, asymmetric dimethyl hydrazine (heptyl), used in the
Proton launch vehicle,
their traces remain for 80-100 years. In accordance with the Agreement between the Government
of Kazakhstan
and
Russian Government on the procedure for cooperation in the event of an accident in the launch
of missiles
from the
Baikonur, signed in
Astana on
November 18, 1999, the parties recognized the need to improve the level of environmental safety of rocket and space activities on the territory of
Kazakhstan with the use firstly, of upgrading the existing and creating
new environmentally
safer space-rocket complexes to Baikonur for subsequent phasing operation
rockets using toxic propellants (amyl, heptyl); secondly, joint work to ensure environmental
safety and address
environmental issues related to the implementation of rocket and space
activities, etc. This agreement also established that in the event of an
accident, the Russian side
suspends the launches of these missiles until the
causes of the accident are clarified. As a result of these measures, since
1999, Kazakhstan has periodically
suspended the flights of Proton-type
missiles due to accidents with serious environmental consequences. In
particular, the launches took place:
1) July 5,
1999, when
the
military satellite “Raduga 1”
was
launched from Baikonur. The launch was postponed twice on May
6 and 7 due to a deviation in the operation
of
the new Breeze-M
upper stage control system. The rocket with satellites fell on the
territory of
Kazakhstan,
with
a
partial
spill
of rocket
fuel.
Kazakhstan
paid
$ 270,000 to the Russian side to compensate for the damage caused by the accident;
2) October 7, 1999 during the launch of the Proton-K
rocket with
the Express-A communication satellite from Baikonur. On the fourth minute of the flight, the rocket ignited. The wreckage
of the
carrier fell on the territory of Kazakhstan;
3) September 6,
2007,
the Proton-M rocket
with the Japanese
communication
satellite started from Baikonur and on the 139th
second of the flight at an altitude of 76 kilometers the rocket ignited.
At the same time, it should be noted that all the above-mentioned
spacecraft accidents did not cause victims from Kazakhstani or Russian side. Nevertheless, despite this, Russia strictly adheres to the fulfillment of Baikonur lease agreement of 1994. This
document states that in case of damage caused by the activities of Russian space programs, Russia is responsible as a launching state in accordance with the Convention on
international liability for damage caused by space objects dated
March 29,
1972. According to the Convention document, the states took upon
themselves the obligation to replenish the material damage inflicted on the
territories, property or health of citizens of a particular country
as a
result of their space activities. The Convention provides for effective rules and
procedures for liability for damage caused by space objects. Recently, the
Russian media have discussed the plans of the Russian leadership on the
possible transfer of missile launches to their new Cosmodrome,
in particular, the Svobodny
Cosmodrome, Plesetsk city in the Arkhangelsk Region and Kapustin Yar of the Astrakhan Region. And Baikonur will
remain for a while the main Russian Cosmodrome. In this regard,
Kazakhstan proposes: firstly, to make appropriate
changes to bilateral
Russian-Kazakh agreements,
based on the principles of the Convention of
1972;secondly,
to demand compensation for the actual damage to
Kazakhstan not only from Russia, but also from
any of the launching international organizations and foreign states that are jointly liable under
the
Convention; thirdly, to create a system for the environmental
security of Kazakhstani
territory in the operation of rocket and space complexes and to obtain a full picture of the impact on the ecological system of Kazakhstan, to create a republican fund “Ecocosmos”, where the funds will be sent from the Baikonur lease, insurance receipts, etc.
The resources
of the fund will be directed to compensatory payments to residents of relevant problem areas, comprehensive chemical- biological, soil science and sanitary-hygienic
research. This will allow obtaining environmental data of Kazakhstani territories that are affected
by
the activities of rocket and space complexes, develop programs for
continuous environmental monitoring
of the study areas, develop
measures for the rehabilitation of contaminated areas, and develop and approve a mock-up of environmental passports for the areas of falling
separating carrier rockets. It should be emphasized that the Cosmodrome
is intended for the preparation
and
launching of spacecraft
communications, navigation, top geodetic, meteorological and scientific, including
manned
and interplanetary ships
and stations.
To date,
it
includes industrial facilities for the installation, testing of rocket and space technology (RST),
the
manufacture and assembly of its individual units, 9 launching complexes equipped with 15 launchers,
34 technical complexes and 3 filling stations. In addition to technical and launching facilities, the
Baikonur is equipped with the necessary ground infrastructure, including a command and measurement
complex, a computer center, “Krainiy” and “Yubileyniy” airfields, communication systems, power, water and heat supply, roads
and railways. The areas of fall of the detachable parts
of
the launch vehicles are intended for receiving the spent stages of launch
vehicles, head
fairings and tail sections. They are located at a considerable
distance from the position
area (300-1600 km).In these territories there are no buildings, structures
or systems used in the interests of the
Cosmodrome. The presence of areas of falling separating parts of carrier rockets is a prerequisite for launching spacecraft into orbit. According to Baikonurlease contract, there are 22 fall zones with 46 areas of fall of the
separated parts of launch
vehicles with a total area of 41,364.7 km2 in
Kyzylorda, Karaganda, Kostanay, Akmola, North Kazakhstan, East Kazakhstan, Pavlodar oblasts.
The operation of such facilities is accompanied
by
emissions of
nitrogen oxides and carbon, hydrogen
sulphide, sulfuric and nitric acid
aerosols, ammonia, ethylene and other contaminants. During
the launch
and
flight of the rocket, chemical pollution of the atmosphere occurs
during its operation.
The products of combustion or evaporation of rocket fuel, depending on the composition
of it and weather conditions, can be
distributed
in the gas, aerosol or liquid phase. The heat emitted by the RC
along the flight path into the atmosphere, as well as
the combustion
products, diffuse rather intensively in the air. After 1-2 days, the concentration of heat and impurities is within the limits permissible for the environment. The impact of the rocket fuel on soils can be expressed in the form of chemical and mechanical contamination.
Chemical
contamination of soils during the regular operation of the fuel occurs as a
result of the settling of the combustion products of the starting cloud and
as a
result of the strains of SRF.Soil contamination with hydrocarbon
combustible
substances (HCS) leads to significant physicochemical
transformations, manifested in changes in the microelement composition of the soil, its air and oxidation-reduction regimes. Intense activity has, unfortunately, a downside – the impact of unfavorable factors of rocket and space activities on the environment is increasing. Kazakhstani laws do not provide for mandatory
insurance of life, health and property of the population against possible harm in the implementation of the RSA. At
the
same time, the Convention
of
1972 and Baikonur lease agreement between Kazakhstan
and
Russia (Artcle 8, paragraph “g”) provide for liability for any damage caused. The Ecological
code
of the Republic of
Kazakhstan defines the procedure for calculating damage caused by a
nature user to the environment in the course of economic activities (art.
108-110).The social tension in adjacent areas has
worsened after two crashes of the RC “Proton” in 1999, the emergency falls of the RS-20 “Dnepr” in 2006 and the RC “Proton-M”
in 2007. At the same time,
according to NASA, there is no confrontation between the rocket and space complexes and the population in the USA. Areas of the fall are
marked, all the necessary information is available and every citizen can get any documents
on
the Internet related to ensuring the safety of the population in the implementation of the RSA. In most of the space-rich
countries, the society views the Cosmodromes as a welcome source of
welfare enhancement. There is a competition among several states that
want to build a new Cosmodrome in U.S. Protection of the population
from environmentally hazardous activities is provided by insurance. The insured is the owner of a hazardous industry or the state. For example, in
Japan, fishery organizations receive compensation for acoustic pollution
(noise), created by Japanese Cosmodromes.
Thus, the international
experience of public participation in
providing security in the areas affected by the Cosmodromes
most likely simply
does
not exist, since all possible problems in this area have been
solved all over the world at the design, construction and legal maintenance
of
the activities of such complexes. The principles of the “Declaration on
environment and development” stipulate
that
states
should develop
national laws on liability and compensation for the negative consequences of environmental damage caused by activities that are conducted under
their jurisdiction or control, to areas outside their jurisdiction. In accordance with these principles, Kazakhstan takes measures to improve
national legislation in the field of environmental
protection and environmental safety of the national economy, including on issues related to the environmental safety of the RSA. The location and active
functioning of the Baikonur in Kazakhstan, its status and scope of activities, as
well
as current and long-term political and economic interests of the state objectively require the application of new approaches in the field of legal regulation of environmental
relations in the field of space
activities, taking into account international
principles of environmental protection.
3.1. Baikonur in the assessment of the expert community
On December 19, 2012 in Moscow, the Presidents of the two
countries signed the Joint Operating Plan for Kazakhstan and Russia for
the Years 2012-2015, a
strategic document, determining key tasks of bilateral co-operation. The word “Baikonur” is known practically
to everyone on earth. But never the less, there is few reliable information on
the
Cosmodrome. The press often refers to the name of the world‟s largest Cosmodrome
and various views on the problems associated with it. The interest related to complex increased after the collapse of the USSR. Before the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Cosmodrome was hidden
from the public.
The press often covers such issues
as: international cooperation
of Kazakhstan with foreign countries; Baikonur, as a link in the system of integration and so on. Basically, the issues under consideration are purely political in nature. The origins of the problems of Baikonur lie in the disintegration of the USSR, which cut off it from the Russian territory. As noted, Russia rents it since 1994 for $115 million a
year, whereas launches
are
mostly carried out by private companies for
customers from around the world. Astana received from Moscow more than two billion dollars, with 928 million euros of this amount went to pay for repairs and infrastructure.
In
2004, the countries signed a new lease agreement for
Baikonur until
2050, under which Russia
assumed
the obligation to use less environmentally hazardous fuel in the missiles.
Baikonur is known not only for its “star” launches, but also for accidents. As already noted, several incidents with “Proton” rockets occurred here, which can only be launched at the moment from
Baikonur.
In
1999 and 2007, rockets fell into Kazakh territory, and dozens of tons of
fuel spilled led
to
significant fires. The world community is vividly watching
both
victories and accidents associated with launches from the
complex. As reported in the European press, after every serious incident, Kazakhstani president decides to
suspend the
launches.The actions of
President Nazarbayev in this situation can be considered legitimate, since
it is a question of guaranteeing the security of his state and its citizens.It is not uncommon for negative assessments
of
Baikonur‟s activities, as the following point of view was expressed in the publication
of the “Kazakhs lose patience.The presence on the Kazakh territory of the legendary Russian Cosmodrome is a constant source of tension, which poisons the
already
not brilliant relations between the two countries. The payments
offered by Moscow do not satisfy Astana, and on November 23, the Kazakh authorities decided to block the launch of the European satellite on the carrier “Proton”.
Indeed, the launch was canceled. This is confirmed by the official
representative of Roskosmos Alexander: “All documents with Kazkosmos were agreed in advance, we fully completed the necessary preparatory
work, but at the
last
minute
Kazakhstan did
not
give
permission to launch.”He does not give further comments.
In this regard, the European press sees the reasons for the cancellation
of the launch in the following:
“The authorities
of independent
Kazakhstan since 1991 have failed to blow. They want to get the right to participate in the management
of
the Cosmodrome,
in particular in the matter of reducing risks.And, of course,
they
need
more
money. Further, Gerrik
Ponce
reports: “Meanwhile,
Russia is looking for other solutions
to the problem. For this purpose, the
carriers of “Soyuz” are now transported
to the Kura, the space gate of
Europe. Two missiles are now being sent to Guiana, and the first launch is
scheduled for 2010.The european space agency and Roskosmos signed a
treaty allowing Russia to use the Guiana space center. Being located much closer to the equator, the French Cosmodrome makes it possible to put into orbit much more massive satellites. And this will make Baikonur less
popular” .What conclusion
can be drawn from this? The space connections
between Kazakhstan
and
Russia are viewed by the European
analysts in the most favorable light. It is especially
unpleasant that
Kazakhstan is regarded as a “parasite”, seeking in these relations only financial benefit. The Cosmodrome
is perceived negatively. Also, one
cannot agree with the opinion
that there are strained relations
between
Kazakhstan and Russia for this period of time. As for the opinion of Kazakh analysts, there is a very different trend. The Kazakh journalist regards the Cosmodrome
as
a link in integration system. First, it determines what Kazakhstan is now and proposes to combine all the
available positive components
into a kind of strategy, the implementation of which in the future will give a great potential in development, and will serve the benefit. The main idea of this strategy is to turn Baikonur into
an international space harbor. To this end, Berkimbaev
(2010) proposes a
program that
requires the creation of 4 autonomous sectors on the territory of the present complex, from which the launches of space vehicles
of various countries will be carried out (Berkimbaev, et al., 2016).
Such unification into the blocs is explained by the following:
“These countries are conditionally united in blocks, are already currently
integrated among themselves within existing regional associations, such
as the League of Arab states, the UES and ASEAN ...” The question arises, why in this case the countries
of the western hemisphere
are
not taken into account? The Kazakh analyst believes that the states of the western hemisphere, firstly, are
economically disadvantaged
in
this
project, and secondly, in the near future, a Cosmodrome
that can be used
by all Latin American countries. It is impossible not to agree with the
opinion, since the use of Russia as a sole Cosmodrome, makes it a kind of
monopoly. Kazakhstan is to some extent dependent. The countries listed above have
large
financial resources and rich scientific and
technical potential. Already, the development of science in these countries is largely
related to space and space technologies. In the future this direction will only intensify. The above mentioned facts and possible interest on the part of financially secured and scientifically
developed countries makes the project of the development of Kazakhstani space program quite viable. At the initial stage, simple levying
of rent for land and for each space launch will be made. Secondly, there must be an inevitable reorientation of the country‟s economy from raw materials to a higher-tech one to meet the
needs of developing space programs. We agree with the opinion that the implementation of this project will make our country competitive, not dependent only on natural resources. Kazakhstan has already appeared as a state that has abandoned nuclear weapons. It is likely that, in the future, Kazakhstan
with its space programs
can
conquer those positions
in the
world that Switzerland currently occupies in the banking business, that is,
the
status of a neutral country,
free from wars and armed conflicts, necessary for all mankind in the development of space programs.
However, it is too early to speak about the speedy
implementation of the program. The opinion of Russian analysts on the problems
of
the Cosmodrome
is far to be optimistic. At first glance, it seems that Russia
should support Kazakhstan
in every possible way due to the joint history. In addition, Russia is one of the main partners of Kazakhstan in the
international arena. However, in view of the construction of the “Vostochny” Cosmodrome, the main question is if Russia really needs Baikonur.
The Roskosmos is assured that today there is no alternative to Baikonur.
There is no
question of
any
“verdict”
on the “Baikonur”
Cosmodrome and
the complex as a whole.
Rosaviakosmos does not exclude in the future the possibility of parallel operation of both Cosmodromes simultaneously. It is already obvious that both “Proton” and “Soyuz” will be used in Baikonur in the coming decades, - said at the board of the Federal Space Agency Roskosmos
deputy head Viktor
Remishevsky. Plans, as we see, are optimistic and friendly. However, it is
not a fact that the Kazakh side will let them come true. This will happen
for a purely
trivial for Russia reasons - ecological. For example, after the accident in September 2008, when the launched “Proton” rocket fell only
50 km from Dzhezkazgan, Astana banned Russia from using this type of
complexes. The launch of the “Protons” is only partially permitted from
the
territory of Kazakhstan until April 1, 2008.It should be noted that the
Proton heavy-duty rocket is the backbone of Russia‟s transport space system
and is actively used to remove satellites in the interests of foreign
customers. For Moscow Baikonur is also a lucrative business. In 2016
Russia ranked first in the world in terms of the number of commercial
launches. On the average, “Roskosmos” carries out more than 20 launches
annually, many of which start from the Baikonur on “Proton” rocket carriers. Unlike the USA and China, which were ahead of Russia last year, the Russian space agency offers the lowest price on the market
- about $50 million per launch. The list
of Roskosmos customers for
commercial launches is impressive: from the European aerospace and defense concern,
aircraft manufacturers
Boeing and Airbus to Japanese Mitsubishi. For the
last decade the most practical heavy rocket “Proton” suffered nine starting failures, as well as two major accidents with the spread of toxic fuel
heptyl in the
territory of Kazakhstan and the destruction of
the road telecommunication satellites.
After
the above-mentioned accidents,
in 2007
and 2013Astana
announced a two-month moratorium on launches. Since, after the launch,
the
“Proton-M”
rocket crashed near Baikonur and there were about 600 tons of highly toxic heptyl on board, and an estimated $89 million
in damage to the Kazakh side.However, the Russian space agency defended its position on the harmlessness of the heptyl accident.As a result, three years later, the negotiations
between both
states ended without determining the amount of environmental damage. There are also negative opinions on the exploitation
of
Baikonur by Russia. According for Kazakhstan Baikonur is also not justified hopes for participation in space projects. Extending the lease for almost half a century
to Russia for a
formal fixed price of $115 million in 2004, Kazakhstan could count on a
joint modernization
of
the Soviet space center. At the same time, the
Kazakh-Russian project “Baiterek”, a space complex for light and environmentally
friendly carrier rockets “Angara” instead of the heptyl
“Proton”, was launched.
However, after 11 years Russia‟s demands to increase the cost of the project almost 9 times (from $223 million
to $2
billion), delays in the implementation of Roskosmos for four years and the reorientation
of
the “Angara” to the Eastern project under construction have been frozen. According to Kazkosmos made in the Senate in 2015, to give up completely from cooperation with Russia to modernize the
Cosmodrome
in favor
of the proposals of
Ukraine or
France, the
committee
did not give the
possibility of
a
half-century lease.
After lengthy intergovernmental negotiations, the deadline for completion of the new “Baiterek” complex and the creation of a light Kazakhstan
carrier rocket “Sunkar” was
postponed to
2025. Moscow
declares about expansion of cooperation with Astana on Baikonur.This official position
was recently announced on the site of the Eurasian economic community
in Bishkek by Russian
president Vladimir
Putin. However, such
statements
do
not attach such an encouraging tone to complex bilateral relations.
Among Kazakh analysts and politicians, there is a split of opinions on cooperation between Kazakhstan and Russia in using the complex. So, has a negative attitude to such cooperation and says that “Kazakhstan
must now decide and admit its mistake in using the Cosmodrome,
admit
that having given it to Russian farming has lagged technologically.
I say with all responsibility that the recent
events connected with the Vostochniy Cosmodrome and the development of Russian military-
industrial complex have shown two things: first, it is technologically and
scientifically backward, the second is the corruption inherent in authoritarian regimes. The world is developing. Ilon Mask outstripped the
former Soviet Union with its nuclear and space potential for years to
come. Do we need such an expensive content, rather archaic in use, an ecologically very dangerous complex? I think we need a political solution.
But for this, we must solve the most important issue - the lease agreement of Baikonur by Russia, which was signed on bonded terms. It was signed
under Yeltsin, where did the figure of 110 million dollars come from? This money can be received back for two flights now”.
M. Eleusizov (2016) adheres to the opposite point of view, he links the viability
of
Baikonur exclusively with Russia (Eleusizov,
2006). The
main reason for the foggy future of the Baikonur is Kazakhstan‟s unwillingness
to develop the space industry, therefore, with the complete withdrawal of Russia, Kazakhstan will not be able to control Baikonur, says ELEUSIZOV (2006). The opinion of the politician is ready to be challenged by the president of the Union of Scientists of Kazakhstan O.
Sabden, he believes
that the reason for the unilateral use of Baikonur
by Russia
lies
rather not in financing, but in playing the position of Astana in negotiations with Moscow. The Kazakh side, according to the politician, is making
unjustified
concessions in intergovernmental
meetings.Speaking about the future of Baikonur, Sabden is sure that it is
necessary
to search for a compromise solution
and
develop further
relations with Russia not on a rental basis, but on the condition
of equal cooperation (Sabden, 2011).
4. CONCLUSION
Relations of the Russia and the Kazakhstan
are
rarely example of
cooperation of two states which due
to will of geopolitical factors, history,
cultural proximity have become allies. Unfortunately, recently this term in respect to external partners of Russian
Federation which is rather often
used in the propaganda purposes to underline rather intention than a real
situation. Concerning Kazakhstan
the ally idea, it also reflects quirk of interests on a number of the main issues and interdependence.
In
the military-political, economic, cultural fields we
may understand
cooperation of two states. The analysis of the problems arising during the
implementation of Russian-Kazakhstan cooperation in the exploration of outer space
is
given,
which has the
practical
importance for the
exploration
of
outer space by both the Russia and Kazakhstan. The Baikonur Cosmodrome is directly connected with the close cooperation of
the
two states-Russia and Kazakhstan. As we have already noted, the origins of the Cosmodrome are taken from the USSR, in view of the
territorial location of the complex, Kazakhstan became the heir to the
cosmic empire. However,
due
to objective
reasons (lack of own space
programs,
scientific and technical personnel, necessary financing not only for the launch, but for the maintenance of the complex, etc.), it could not become a full-fledged receiver and independently
operate the spaceport. And the most optimal solution of that time was the provision of Baikonur
in long-term
lease of Russia. This has saved the unique Cosmodrome, which has great international significance, taking into account the fact that
in the modern world, the space problem is given utmost importance.
Russia has military bases in two states
(Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan),
and in
Kazakhstan,
it
rents several test grounds and the Baikonur Space Complex. It
is
also
vitally
important
for
Russia to enhance
cooperation with the Stan‟s on the
issues of the prevention of inter-ethnic
conflicts, the struggle against traditional
forms of international
crime, and the new threats and challenges. In the world practice there is no experience of renting a part of the territory of another state
by
one
state, similar
to
the practice
of lease by the
Russian Federation of the Baikonur complex.
Two states have
created the
necessary legal framework for the effective development
of international space law. Nowadays, the space industry
is one of the most priority and knowledge-intensive
areas of human activity. Participation in space activities largely determines the international
prestige of any state, its
economic
and scientific and technical
power. Many of the most important directions of the national economy, not to mention economic and military- strategic, are already unthinkable without the use of special space systems. Their use in many cases becomes economically profitable.
The close cooperation of two countries
allowed it to occupy a place
of honor in the international space sphere. In particular, one of the most
important advantages for Kazakhstan
is the implementation of joint space
projects. This
allows
Kazakhstan to enter
the world market of space launch services, to create a technological
base
for designing and
manufacturing spacecraft elements and target on-board equipment, and to expand the effective participation
of Kazakhstani specialists in operating the facilities. One of such priority
projects is the satellite “KazSat” and
“Baiterek”.However,
one should not keep silent about the so-called minuses. Although the definition is more appropriate here - catastrophes
in the form of environmental threats in the process of mastering outer space. The main impact on Kazakhstan
is compliance with the legislation
on
maintaining environmental
safety is observed, yet environmental
damage is significantly affected. If
we
consider the position
of Kazakhstan in relation to the Cosmodrome there is a prospect for the development of
the
country‟s astronautics, with the help of foreign states. At present, Russia invests huge funds for the development of the Baikonur, without
taking into account rental fees. And in case of any disasters, Kazakhstan is paid compensation,
and this is another expenses. In addition, Russia with
international organizations and foreign states
that bear joint responsibility, should provide for insurance of risks and liability in favor of Kazakhstan
in international insurance organizations
for an amount of at least $500 million for each insurance event associated with the implementation
by Russia of space activities.
For
example, in accordance with the USA Law
“about commercial launches”, the licensee, i.e. a party holding a license to launch is required to submit documents – information about funds deposited with the bank or an insurance policy guaranteeing compensation of damages
to third parties in the amount of $164 to $215 million,
depending on the
missile launching equipment
used.
In addition,
the licensee is obliged to insure for $80 million the facilities and equipment of
the launch complex, which are federal property of the US Government. The amount
of
insurance fluctuate within the limits of $80-250
million depending on
the orbiter and launch vehicles (Bjornerud, 2004). The insurance of
space risks
in the
orbital
operation of
space vehicles is
carried out mainly for one year. The scope of coverage may include the entrepreneurial risk of the owner of the space project. These measures will
avoid disagreements and misunderstandings
between Kazakhstan and Russia,
and
in the future will allow fruitful cooperation. In conclusion, we
would like to note that today outer space is viewed by the same
environment as land, water and air, in this regard, ensuring security is a
priority. Baikonur is a major object in military-political cooperation
between the two states. Turning to the national legislations of these states
it is
possible to determine the significance
of
space activities in military-
political cooperation
between states. So, in Kazakhstan and Russia there are Laws on space activities, in these legislative acts the understanding and definition of space activity is given directly. Space activities are defined as - activities aimed at the exploration and use of outer space to
achieve scientific, economic,
environmental, defense, information and
commercial purposes. Thus, Baikonur occupies one of the leading places
in the
military-political cooperation between the
two
states,
however much the question of who benefits more from the exploitation of the
Cosmodrome, it
would
be foolish to measure this,
it
is
necessary to understand that only successful cooperation
will bring the same benefits and Kazakhstan
and
Russia. The space industry of Kazakhstan needs the
potential of Russia, taking experience; Kazakhstan will be able to take its place among space powers in the future.
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